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it as fiction。 But I finally concluded that in Eaters of the Dead； I had played the game too hard。 While I was writing； I felt that I was drawing the line between fact and fiction clearly； for example； one cited translator； Per Fraus…Dolus； means in literal Latin 〃by trickery…deceit。〃 But within a few years； I could no longer be certain which passages were real； and which were made up； at one point I found myself in a research library trying to locate certain references in my bibliography； and finally concluding； after hours of frustrating effort； that however convincing they appeared； they must be fictitious。 I was furious to have wasted my time； but I had only myself to blame。
I mention this because the tendency to blur the boundaries of fact and fiction has bee widespread in modern society。 Fiction is now seamlessly inserted in everything from scholarly histories to television news。 Of course； television is understood to be venal； its transgressions shrugged off by most of us。 But the attitude of 〃post…modern〃 scholars represents a more fundamental challenge。 Some in academic life now argue seriously there is no difference between fact and fiction； that all ways of reading text are arbitrary and personal； and that therefore pure invention is as valid as hard research。 At best； this attitude evades traditional scholarly discipline； at worst； it is nasty and dangerous。51 But such academic views were not prevalent twenty years ago； when I sat down to write this novel in the guise of a scholarly monograph； and academic fashions may change again…particularly if scholars find themselves chasing down imaginary footnotes； as I have done。
Under the circumstances； I should perhaps say explicitly that the references in this afterword are genuine。 The rest of the novel； including its introduction； text； footnotes； and bibliography； should properly be viewed as fiction。
When Eaters of the Dead was first published； this playful version of Beowulf received a rather irritable reception from reviewers； as if I had desecrated a monument。 But Beowulf scholars all seem to enjoy it； and many have written to say so。
M。C。
DECEMBER 1992
NOTE： The unprintable Arabic script found in the footnotes of the original paper version has been rendered as 〃（。。。）〃 in this e…text version。 …Russell
1 Throughout the manuscript； Ibn Fadlan is inexact about the size and position of his party。 Whether this apparent carelessness reflects his assumption that the reader knows the position of the caravan； or whether it is a consequence of lost passages of the text； one cannot be sure。 Social conventions may also be a factor； for Ibn Fadlan never states that his party is greater than a few individuals； when in fact it probably numbered a hundred people or more； and twice as many horses and camels。 But Ibn Fadlan does not count…literally…slaves； servants； and lesser members of the caravan。
2 Farzan； an unabashed admirer of Ibn Fadlan； believes that this paragraph reveals 〃the sensibility of a modern anthropologist； recording not only the customs of a people； but the mechanisms which act to enforce those customs。 The economic meaning of killing a nomad leader's horses is the approximate equivalent of modern death…taxes； that is； it tends to retard the accumulation of inherited wealth in a family。 Although demanded by religion； this could not have been a popular practice； any more than it is during the present day。 Ibn Fadlan most astutely demonstrates the way it is imposed upon the reluctant。〃
3 Actually； Ibn Fadlan's word for them here was 〃Rus；〃 the name of this particular tribe of Northmen。 In the text； he sometimes calls the Scandinavians by their particular tribal name； and sometimes he calls them 〃Varangians〃 as a generic term。 Historians now reserve the term Varangian for the Scandinavian mercenaries employed by the Byzantine Empire。 To avoid confusion； in this translation the terms 〃Northmen〃 and 〃Norsemen〃 are everywhere employed。
4 Arabs have always been uneasy about translating the Koran。 The earliest sheiks held that the holy book could not be translated； an injunction apparently based on religious considerations。 But everyone who has attempted a translation agrees for the most secular reasons： Arabic is by nature a succinct language； and the Koran is posed as poetry and therefore even more concentrated。 The difficulties of conveying literal meaning…to say nothing of the grace and elegance of the original Arabic…have led translators to preface their work with prolonged and abject apologies。
At the same time； Islam is an active； expansive way of thought； and the tenth century was one of its peak periods of dissemination。 This expansion inevitably necessitated translations for the use of new converts； and translations were made； but never happily from the standpoint of the Arabs。
5 This alone was startling to an Arab observer from a warm climate。 Muslim practice called for quick burial； often the same day as the death； after a short ceremony of ritual washing and prayer。
6 Or； possibly； 〃crazed。〃 The Latin manuscripts read cerritus； but the Arabic of Yakut says （。。。）； 〃dazed〃 or 〃dazzled。〃
7 Interestingly； in both Arabic and Latin； literally 〃disease。〃
8 The perils of translation are demonstrated in this sentence。 The original Arabic of Yakut reads （。。。） and means literally 〃There is no name I can speak。〃 The Xymos manuscript employs the Latin verb dare； with the meaning 〃I cannot give it a name；〃 implying that the interpreter does not know the correct word in a non…Norse tongue。 The Razi manuscript； which also contains the interpreter's speeches in fuller detail； uses the word edere； with the meaning 〃There is no name that I can make known ＇to you＇。〃 This is the more correct translation。 The Northman is literally afraid to say the word； lest it call up demons。 In Latin； edere has the sense of 〃giving birth to〃 and 〃calling up；〃 as well as its literal meaning； 〃to put forth。〃 Later paragraphs confirm this sense of the meaning。
9 Wulfgar was left behind。 Jensen states the Northmen monly held a messenger as hostage； and this is why 〃appropriate messengers were the sons of kings； or high nobles； or other persons who had some value to their own munity； thus making them fitting hostages。〃 Olaf Jorgensen argues that Wulfgar remained behind because he was afraid to go back。
10 Some early authors apparently thought this meant that the sail was hemmed in rope； there are eighteenth…century drawings that show the Viking sails with rope borderings。 There is no evidence that this was the case； Ibn Fadlan meant that the sails were trimmed in the nautical sense； i。e。； angled to best catch the wind； by the use of sealskin ropes as halyards。
11 This is a typically Muslim sentiment。 Unlike Christianity； a religion which in many ways it resembles； Islam does not emphasize a concept of original sin arising from the fall of man。 Sin for a Muslim is forgetfulness in carrying out the prescribed daily rituals of the religion。 As a corollary； it is a more serious offense to forget the ritual entirely than to remember the ritual and yet fail to carry it out either through extenuating circumstances or personal inadequacy。 Thus Ibn Fadlan is saying； in effec