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1。 Universal History
§ 6
It is the aim of the investigator to gain a view of the entire history of a people or a country； or of
the world； in short； what we call Universal History。 In this case the working up of the historical
material is the main point。 The workman approaches his task with his own spirit； a spirit distinct
from that of the element he is to manipulate。 Here a very important consideration will be the
principles to which the author refers； the bearing and motives of the actions and events which he
describes； and those which determine the form of his narrative。 Among us Germans this reflective
treatment and the display of ingenuity which it occasions； assume a manifold variety of phases。
Every writer of history proposes to himself an original method。 The English and French confess to
general principles of historical position。 Their standpoint is more that of cosmopolitan or of
national culture。 Among us each labours to invent a purely individual point of view。 Instead of
writing history； we are always beating our brains to discover how history ought to be written。 This
first kind of Reflective History is most nearly akin to the preceding； when it has no farther aim than
to present the annals of a country plete。 Such pilations （among which may be reckoned
the works of Livy； Diodorus Siculus； Johannes von Müller's History of Switzerland） are； if well
performed； highly meritorious。 Among the best of the kind may be reckoned such annalist as
approach those of the first class； who give so vivid a transcript of events that the reader may well
fancy himself listening to contemporaries and eye…witnesses。 But it often happens that the
individuality of tone which must characterise a writer belonging to a different culture； is not
modified in accordance with the periods such a record must traverse。 The spirit of the writer is
quite other than that of the times of which he treats。 Thus Livy puts into the mouths of the old
Roman kings； consuls； and generals； such orations as would be delivered by an acplished
advocate of the Livian era； and which strikingly contrast with the genuine traditions of Roman
antiquity （e。g。 the fable of Menenius Agrippa）。 In the same way he gives us descriptions of battles；
as if he bad been an actual spectator； but whose features would serve well enough for battles in
any period； and whose distinctness contrasts on the other hand with the want of connection and
the inconsistency that prevail elsewhere； even in his treatment of chief points of interest。 The
difference between such a piler and an original historian may be best seen by paring
Polybius himself with the style in which Livy uses； expands； and abridges his annals in those
period； of which Polybius's account has been preserved。 Johann von Müller has given a stiff；
formal； pedantic aspect of history； in the endeavour to remain faithful in his portraiture to the times
he describes。 We much prefer the narratives we find in old Tschudy。 All is more naive and natural
than it appears in the garb of a fictitious and affected archaism。
§ 7
A history which aspires to traverse long periods of time； or to be universal； must indeed forego the
attempt to give individual representations of the past as it actually existed。 It must foreshorten its
pictures by abstractions； and this includes not merely the omission of events and deeds； but
whatever is involved in the fact that Thought is； after all； the most trenchant epitomist。 A battle； a
great victory； a siege； no longer maintains its original proportions； but is put off with a bare
mention。 When Livy e。g。 tells us of the wars with the Volsci； we sometimes have the brief
announcement： “This year war was carried on with the Volsci。”
2。 Pragmatical History
§ 8
A second species of Reflective History is what we may call the Pragmatical。 When we have to
deal with the Past； and occupy ourselves with a remote world a Present rises into being for the
mind … produced by its own activity； as the reward of its labour。 The occurrences are； indeed；
various； but the idea which pervades them … their deeper import and connection … is one。 This
takes the occurrence out of the category of the Past and makes it virtually Present。 Pragmatical
（didactic） reflections； though in their nature decidedly abstract； are truly and indefeasibly of the
Present； and quicken the annals of the dead Past with the life of today。 Whether； indeed such
reflections are truly interesting and enlivening； depends on the writer's own spirit。 Moral reflections
must here be specially noticed； … the moral teaching expected from history； which latter has not
unfrequently been treated with a direct view to the former。 It may be allowed that examples of
virtue elevate the soul； and are applicable in the moral instructions of children for impressing
excellence upon their minds。 But the destinies of peoples and states； their interests； relations； and
the plicated issue of their affairs； present quite another field。 Rulers； Statesmen； Nations； are
wont to be emphatically mended to the teaching which experience offers in history。 But what
experience and history teach is this； … that peoples and governments never have learned anything
from history； or acted on principles deduced from it。 Each period is involved in such peculiar
circumstances； exhibits a condition of things so strictly idiosyncratic； that its conduct must be
regulated by considerations connected with itself； and itself alone。 Amid the pressure of great
events； a general principle gives no help。 It is useless to revert to similar circumstances in the Past。
The pallid shades of memory struggle in vain with the life and freedom of the Present。 Looked at in
this light； nothing can be shallower than the oft…repeated appeal to Greek and Roman examples
during the French Revolution。 Nothing is more diverse than the genius of those nations and that of
our times。 Johannes v。 Müller； in his Universal History as also in his History of Switzerland； had
such moral aims in view。 He designed to prepare a body of political doctrines for the instruction of
princes； governments and peoples （he formed a special collection of doctrines and reflections； …
frequently giving us in his correspondence the exact number of apophthegms which he had
piled in a week）； but he cannot reckon this part of his labour as among the best that he
acplished。 It is only a thorough； liberal； prehensive view of historical relations （such e。g。 as
we find in Montesquieu's Esprit des Loix）； that can give truth and interest to reflections of this
order。 One Reflective History therefore supersedes another。 The materials are patent to every
writer： each is likely enough to believe himself capable of arranging and manipulating them； and we
may expect that each will insist upon his own spirit as that of the age in question。 Disgusted by
such reflective histories readers have often returned to a with pleasure to a narrative adopting no
particular point of view。 These certainly have their