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e shores of North America； which are ranked by some conchologists as distinct species from their European representatives； and by other conchologists as only varieties； are really varieties or are； as it is called； specifically distinct。 This could be effected only by the future geologist discovering in a fossil state numerous intermediate gradations； and such success seems to me improbable in the highest degree。
Geological research； though it has added numerous species to existing and extinct genera； and has made the intervals between some few groups less wide than they otherwise would have been； yet has done scarcely anything in breaking down the distinction between species； by connecting them together by numerous； fine； intermediate varieties； and this not having been effected； is probably the gravest and most obvious of all the many objections which may be urged against my views。 Hence it will be worth while to sum up the foregoing remarks； under an imaginary illustration。 The Malay Archipelago is of about the size of Europe from the North Cape to the Mediterranean； and from Britain to Russia； and therefore equals all the geological formations which have been examined with any accuracy； excepting those of the United States of America。 I fully agree with Mr Godwin…Austen； that the present condition of the Malay Archipelago； with its numerous large islands separated by wide and shallow seas； probably represents the former state of Europe； when most of our formations were accumulating。 The Malay Archipelago is one of the richest regions of the whole world in organic beings； yet if all the species were to be collected which have ever lived there； how imperfectly would they represent the natural history of the world！
But we have every reason to believe that the terrestrial productions of the archipelago would be preserved in an excessively imperfect manner in the formations which we suppose to be there accumulating。 I suspect that not many of the strictly littoral animals； or of those which lived on naked submarine rocks； would be embedded； and those embedded in gravel or sand； would not endure to a distant epoch。 Wherever sediment did not accumulate on the bed of the sea； or where it did not accumulate at a sufficient rate to protect organic bodies from decay； no remains could be preserved。
In our archipelago； I believe that fossiliferous formations could be formed of sufficient thickness to last to an age； as distant in futurity as the secondary formations lie in the past； only during periods of subsidence。 These periods of subsidence would be separated from each other by enormous intervals； during which the area would be either stationary or rising； whilst rising； each fossiliferous formation would be destroyed； almost as soon as accumulated； by the incessant coast…action； as we now see on the shores of South America。 During the periods of subsidence there would probably be much extinction of life； during the periods of elevation； there would be much variation； but the geological record would then be least perfect。
It may be doubted whether the duration of any one great period of subsidence over the whole or part of the archipelago； together with a contemporaneous accumulation of sediment； would exceed the average duration of the same specific forms； and these contingencies are indispensable for the preservation of all the transitional gradations between any two or more species。 If such gradations were not fully preserved； transitional varieties would merely appear as so many distinct species。 It is； also； probable that each great period of subsidence would be interrupted by oscillations of level； and that slight climatal changes would intervene during such lengthy periods； and in these cases the inhabitants of the archipelago would have to migrate； and no closely consecutive record of their modifications could be preserved in any one formation。
Very many of the marine inhabitants of the archipelago now range thousands of miles beyond its confines； and analogy leads me to believe that it would be chiefly these far…ranging species which would oftenest produce new varieties； and the varieties would at first generally be local or confined to one place； but if possessed of any decided advantage； or when further modified and improved； they would slowly spread and supplant their parent…forms。 When such varieties returned to their ancient homes； as they would differ from their former state； in a nearly uniform； though perhaps extremely slight degree； they would； according to the principles followed by many palaeontologists； be ranked as new and distinct species。
If then； there be some degree of truth in these remarks； we have no right to expect to find in our geological formations； an infinite number of those fine transitional forms； which on my theory assuredly have connected all the past and present species of the same group into one long and branching chain of life。 We ought only to look for a few links； some more closely； some more distantly related to each other； and these links； let them be ever so close； if found in different stages of the same formation； would； by most palaeontologists； be ranked as distinct species。 But I do not pretend that I should ever have suspected how poor a record of the mutations of life； the best preserved geological section presented； had not the difficulty of our not discovering innumerable transitional links between the species which appeared at the commencement and close of each formation； pressed so hardly on my theory。
On the sudden appearance of whole groups of Allied Species。 The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations； has been urged by several palaeontologists； for instance； by Agassiz； Pictet； and by none more forcibly than by Professor Sedgwick； as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species。 If numerous species； belonging to the same genera or families； have really started into life all at once； the fact would be fatal to the theory of descent with slow modification through natural selection。 For the development of a group of forms； all of which have descended from some one progenitor； must have been an extremely slow process； and the progenitors must have lived long ages before their modified descendants。 But we continually over…rate the perfection of the geological record； and falsely infer； because certain genera or families have not been found beneath a certain stage； that they did not exist before that stage。 We continually forget how large the world is； compared with the area over which our geological formations have been carefully examined； we forget that groups of species may elsewhere have long existed and have slowly multiplied before they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of Europe and of the United States。 We do not make due allowance for the enormous intervals of time； which have probably elapsed between our consecutive formations； longer perhaps in some cases than the time required for the accumulation of each formation。 These intervals will have given time for the multiplication of species from some one or some few parent…forms； and in the succeeding formation such species will appear as if sudde