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d the decrease of the song…thrush。 How frequently we hear of one species of rat taking the place of another species under the most different climates！ In Russia the small Asiatic cockroach has everywhere driven before it its great congener。 One species of charlock will supplant another； and so in other cases。 We can dimly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms； which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature； but probably in no one case could we precisely say why one species has been victorious over another in the great battle of life。
A corollary of the highest importance may be deduced from the foregoing remarks； namely； that the structure of every organic being is related； in the most essential yet often hidden manner； to that of all other organic beings； with which it comes into competition for food or residence； or from which it has to escape； or on which it preys。 This is obvious in the structure of the teeth and talons of the tiger； and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite which clings to the hair on the tiger's body。 But in the beautifully plumed seed of the dandelion； and in the flattened and fringed legs of the water…beetle； the relation seems at first confined to the elements of air and water。 Yet the advantage of plumed seeds no doubt stands in the closest relation to the land being already thickly clothed by other plants； so that the seeds may be widely distributed and fall on unoccupied ground。 In the water…beetle； the structure of its legs； so well adapted for diving； allows it to compete with other aquatic insects； to hunt for its own prey； and to escape serving as prey to other animals。
The store of nutriment laid up within the seeds of many plants seems at first sight to have no sort of relation to other plants。 But from the strong growth of young plants produced from such seeds （as peas and beans）； when sown in the midst of long grass； I suspect that the chief use of the nutriment in the seed is to favour the growth of the young seedling； whilst struggling with other plants growing vigorously all around。
Look at a plant in the midst of its range； why does it not double or quadruple its numbers？ We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold； dampness or dryness； for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder； damper or drier districts。 In this case we can clearly see that if we wished in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number； we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors； or over the animals which preyed on it。 On the confines of its geographical range； a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant； but we have reason to believe that only a few plants or animals range so far； that they are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone。 Not until we reach the extreme confines of life； in the arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert； will competition cease。 The land may be extremely cold or dry； yet there will be competition between some few species； or between the individuals of the same species； for the warmest or dampest spots。
Hence； also； we can see that when a plant or animal is placed in a new country amongst new competitors； though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home； yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner。 If we wished to increase its average numbers in its new home； we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have done in its native country； for we should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies。
It is good thus to try in our imagination to give any form some advantage over another。 Probably in no single instance should we know what to do； so as to succeed。 It will convince us of our ignorance on the mutual relations of all organic beings； a conviction as necessary； as it seems to be difficult to acquire。 All that we can do； is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ratio； that each at some period of its life； during some season of the year； during each generation or at intervals； has to struggle for life； and to suffer great destruction。 When we reflect on this struggle； we may console ourselves with the full belief； that the war of nature is not incessant； that no fear is felt； that death is generally prompt； and that the vigorous； the healthy； and the happy survive and multiply。
Chapter 4 … Natural Selection
How will the struggle for existence； discussed too briefly in the last chapter； act in regard to variation？ Can the principle of selection； which we have seen is so potent in the hands of man； apply in nature？ I think we shall see that it can act most effectually。 Let it be borne in mind in what an endless number of strange peculiarities our domestic productions； and； in a lesser degree； those under nature； vary； and how strong the hereditary tendency is。 Under domestication； it may be truly said that the； whole organisation becomes in some degree plastic。 Let it be borne in mind how infinitely complex and close…fitting are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life。 Can it； then； be thought improbable； seeing that variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred； that other variations useful in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life； should sometimes occur in the course of thousands of generations？ If such do occur； can we doubt （remembering that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive） that individuals having any advantage； however slight； over others； would have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind？ On the other hand； we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed。 This preservation of favourable variations and the rejection of injurious variations； I call Natural Selection。 Variations neither useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection； and would be left a fluctuating element； as perhaps we see in the species called polymorphic。
We shall best understand the probable course of natural selection by taking the case of a country undergoing some physical change； for instance； of climate。 The proportional numbers of its inhabitants would almost immediately undergo a change； and some species might become extinct。 We may conclude； from what we have seen of the intimate and complex manner in which the inhabitants of each country are bound together； that any change in the numerical proportions of some of the inhabitants； independently of the change of climate itself； would most seriously affect many of the others。 If the country were open on its borders； new forms would certainly immigrate； and this also would seriously disturb the relations of some of the former inhabitants。 Let it be remembered how powerful the influence of a single introduced tree or mammal has been shown to be。 But in the case of an island； or of a country partly surrounded by barriers； into which new and better adapted forms could not freely enter； we should then have places in the econom