representative government-第20章

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illusion。　A　government　strictly　limited　in　its　powers　and　attributions；　required　to　hold　its　hands　from　over…meddling；　and　to　let　most　things　go　on　without　its　assuming　the　part　of　guardian　or　director；　is　not　to　the　taste　of　such　a　people。　In　their　eyes　the　possessors　of　authority　can　hardly　take　too　much　upon　themselves；　provided　the　authority　itself　is　open　to　general　competition。　An　average　individual　among　them　prefers　the　chance；　however　distant　or　improbable；　of　wielding　some　share　of　power　over　his　fellow　citizens；　above　the　certainty；　to　himself　and　others；　of　having　no　unnecessary　power　exercised　over　them。　These　are　the　elements　of　a　people　of　place…hunters；　in　whom　the　course　of　politics　is　mainly　determined　by　place…hunting；　where　equality　alone　is　cared　for；　but　not　liberty；　where　the　contests　of　political　parties　are　but　struggles　to　decide　whether　the　power　of　meddling　in　everything　shall　belong　to　one　class　or　another；　perhaps　merely　to　one　knot　of　public　men　or　another；　where　the　idea　entertained　of　democracy　is　merely　that　of　opening　offices　to　the　competition　of　all　instead　of　a　few；　where；　the　more　popular　the　institutions；　the　more　innumerable　are　the　places　created；　and　the　more　monstrous　the　over…government　exercised　by　all　over　each；　and　by　the　executive　over　all。　It　would　be　as　unjust　as　it　would　be　ungenerous　to　offer　this；　or　anything　approaching　to　it；　as　an　unexaggerated　picture　of　the　French　people；　yet　the　degree　in　which　they　do　participate　in　this　type　of　character　has　caused　representative　government　by　a　limited　class　to　break　down　by　excess　of　corruption；　and　the　attempt　at　representative　government　by　the　whole　male　population　to　end　in　giving　one　man　the　power　of　consigning　any　number　of　the　rest；　without　trial；　to　Lambessa　or　Cayenne；　provided　he　allows　all　of　them　to　think　themselves　not　excluded　from　the　possibility　of　sharing　his　favours。　　　The　point　of　character　which；　beyond　any　other；　fits　the　people　of　this　country　for　representative　government　is　that　they　have　almost　universally　the　contrary　characteristic。　They　are　very　jealous　of　any　attempt　to　exercise　power　over　them　not　sanctioned　by　long　usage　and　by　their　own　opinion　of　right；　but　they　in　general　care　very　little　for　the　exercise　of　power　over　others。　Not　having　the　smallest　sympathy　with　the　passion　for　governing；　while　they　are　but　too　well　acquainted　with　the　motives　of　private　interest　from　which　that　office　is　sought；　they　prefer　that　it　should　be　performed　by　those　to　whom　it　comes　without　seeking；　as　a　consequence　of　social　position。　If　foreigners　understood　this；　it　would　account　to　them　for　some　of　the　apparent　contradictions　in　the　political　feelings　of　Englishmen；　their　unhesitating　readiness　to　let　themselves　be　governed　by　the　higher　classes；　coupled　with　so　little　personal　subservience　to　them；　that　no　people　are　so　fond　of　resisting　authority　when　it　oversteps　certain　prescribed　limits；　or　so　determined　to　make　their　rulers　always　remember　that　they　will　only　be　governed　in　the　way　they　themselves　like　best。　Place…hunting；　accordingly；　is　a　form　of　ambition　to　which　the　English；　considered　nationally；　are　almost　strangers。　If　we　except　the　few　families　or　connections　of　whom　official　employment　lies　directly　in　the　way；　Englishmen's　views　of　advancement　in　life　take　an　altogether　different　direction…　that　of　success　in　business；　or　in　a　profession。　They　have　the　strongest　distaste　for　any　mere　struggle　for　office　by　political　parties　or　individuals：　and　there　are　few　things　to　which　they　have　a　greater　aversion　than　to　the　multiplication　of　public　employments：　a　thing；　on　the　contrary；　always　popular　with　the　bureaucracy…ridden　nations　of　the　Continent；　who　would　rather　pay　higher　taxes　than　diminish　by　the　smallest　fraction　their　individual　chances　of　a　place　for　themselves　or　their　relatives；　and　among　whom　a　cry　for　retrenchment　never　means　abolition　of　offices；　but　the　reduction　of　the　salaries　of　those　which　are　too　considerable　for　the　ordinary　citizen　to　have　any　chance　of　being　appointed　to　them。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　5　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Proper　Functions　of　Representative　Bodies。

　　IN　TREATING　of　representative　government；　it　is　above　all　necessary　to　keep　in　view　the　distinction　between　its　idea　or　essence；　and　the　particular　forms　in　which　the　idea　has　been　clothed　by　accidental　historical　developments；　or　by　the　notions　current　at　some　particular　period。　　　The　meaning　of　representative　government　is；　that　the　whole　people；　or　some　numerous　portion　of　them；　exercise　through　deputies　periodically　elected　by　themselves　the　ultimate　controlling　power；　which；　in　every　constitution；　must　reside　somewhere。　This　ultimate　power　they　must　possess　in　all　its　completeness。　They　must　be　masters；　whenever　they　please；　of　all　the　operations　of　government。　There　is　no　need　that　the　constitutional　law　should　itself　give　them　this　mastery。　It　does　not　in　the　British　Constitution。　But　what　it　does　give　practically　amounts　to　this。　The　power　of　final　control　is　as　essentially　single；　in　a　mixed　and　balanced　government；　as　in　a　pure　monarchy　or　democracy。　This　is　the　portion　of　truth　in　the　opinion　of　the　ancients；　revived　by　great　authorities　in　our　own　time；　that　a　balanced　constitution　is　impossible。　There　is　almost　always　a　balance；　but　the　scales　never　hang　exactly　even。　Which　of　them　preponderates　is　not　always　apparent　on　the　face　of　the　political　institutions。　In　the　British　Constitution；　each　of　the　three　co…ordinate　members　of　the　sovereignty　is　invested　with　powers　which；　if　fully　exercised；　would　enable　it　to　stop　all　the　machinery　of　government。　Nominally；　therefore；　each　is　invested　with　equal　power　of　thwarting　and　obstructing　the　others：　and　if；　by　exerting　that　power；　any　of　the　three　could　hope　to　better　its　position；　the　ordinary　course　of　human　affairs　forbids　us　to　doubt　that　the　power　would　be　exercised。　There　can　be　no　question　that　the　full　powers　of　each　would　be　employed　defensively　if　it　found　itself　assailed　by　one　or　both　of　the　others。　What　then　prevents　the　same　powers　from　being　exerted　aggressively？　The　unwritten　maxims　of　the　Constitution…　in　other　words；　the　positive　political　morality　of　the　country：　and　this　positive　political　morality　is　what　we　must　look　to；　if　we　would　know　in　whom　the　really　supreme　power　in　the　Constitution　resides。　　　By　constitutional　law；　the　Crown　can　refuse　its　assent　to　any　Act　of　Parliament；　and　can　appoint　to　office　and　maintain　in　it　any　Minister；　in　opposition　to　the　remonstrances　of　Parliament。　But　the　constitutional　morality　of　the　country　nullifies　these　powers；　preventing　them　from　being　ever　used；　and；　by　requiring　that　the　head　of　the　Administration　should　always　be　virtually　appointed　by　the　House　of　Commons；　makes　that　body　the　real　sovereign　of　the　State。　These　unwritten　rules；　which　limit　the　use　of　lawful　powers；　are；　however；　only　effectual；　and　maintain　themselves　in　existence；　on　condition　of　harmonising　with　the　actual　distribution　of　real　political　strength。　There　is　in　every　constitution　a　strongest　power…　one　which　would　gain　the　victory　if　the　compromises　by　which　the　Constitution　habitually　works　were　suspended　a