representative government-第16章

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ned　by　the　certainty　of　its　impotence　than　by　any　positive　discouragement。　Between　subjection　to　the　will　of　others；　and　the　virtues　of　self…help　and　self…government；　there　is　a　natural　incompatibility。　This　is　more　or　less　complete；　according　as　the　bondage　is　strained　or　relaxed。　Rulers　differ　very　much　in　the　length　to　which　they　carry　the　control　of　the　free　agency　of　their　subjects；　or　the　supersession　of　it　by　managing　their　business　for　them。　But　the　difference　is　in　degree；　not　in　principle；　and　the　best　despots　often　go　the　greatest　lengths　in　chaining　up　the　free　agency　of　their　subjects。　A　bad　despot；　when　his　own　personal　indulgences　have　been　provided　for；　may　sometimes　be　willing　to　let　the　people　alone；　but　a　good　despot　insists　on　doing　them　good；　by　making　them　do　their　own　business　in　a　better　way　than　they　themselves　know　of。　The　regulations　which　restricted　to　fixed　processes　all　the　leading　branches　of　French　manufactures　were　the　work　of　the　great　Colbert。　　　Very　different　is　the　state　of　the　human　faculties　where　a　human　being　feels　himself　under　no　other　external　restraint　than　the　necessities　of　nature；　or　mandates　of　society　which　he　has　his　share　in　imposing；　and　which　it　is　open　to　him；　if　he　thinks　them　wrong；　publicly　to　dissent　from；　and　exert　himself　actively　to　get　altered。　No　doubt；　under　a　government　partially　popular；　this　freedom　may　be　exercised　even　by　those　who　are　not　partakers　in　the　full　privileges　of　citizenship。　But　it　is　a　great　additional　stimulus　to　any　one's　self…help　and　self…reliance　when　he　starts　from　even　ground；　and　has　not　to　feel　that　his　success　depends　on　the　impression　he　can　make　upon　the　sentiments　and　dispositions　of　a　body　of　whom　he　is　not　one。　It　is　a　great　discouragement　to　an　individual；　and　a　still　greater　one　to　a　class；　to　be　left　out　of　the　constitution；　to　be　reduced　to　plead　from　outside　the　door　to　the　arbiters　of　their　destiny；　not　taken　into　consultation　within。　The　maximum　of　the　invigorating　effect　of　freedom　upon　the　character　is　only　obtained　when　the　person　acted　on　either　is；　or　is　looking　forward　to　becoming；　a　citizen　as　fully　privileged　as　any　other。　　　What　is　still　more　important　than　even　this　matter　of　feeling　is　the　practical　discipline　which　the　character　obtains　from　the　occasional　demand　made　upon　the　citizens　to　exercise；　for　a　time　and　in　their　turn；　some　social　function。　It　is　not　sufficiently　considered　how　little　there　is　in　most　men's　ordinary　life　to　give　any　largeness　either　to　their　conceptions　or　to　their　sentiments。　Their　work　is　a　routine；　not　a　labour　of　love；　but　of　self…interest　in　the　most　elementary　form；　the　satisfaction　of　daily　wants；　neither　the　thing　done；　nor　the　process　of　doing　it；　introduces　the　mind　to　thoughts　or　feelings　extending　beyond　individuals；　if　instructive　books　are　within　their　reach；　there　is　no　stimulus　to　read　them；　and　in　most　cases　the　individual　has　no　access　to　any　person　of　cultivation　much　superior　to　his　own。　Giving　him　something　to　do　for　the　public；　supplies；　in　a　measure；　all　these　deficiencies。　If　circumstances　allow　the　amount　of　public　duty　assigned　him　to　be　considerable；　it　makes　him　an　educated　man。　Notwithstanding　the　defects　of　the　social　system　and　moral　ideas　of　antiquity；　the　practice　of　the　dicastery　and　the　ecclesia　raised　the　intellectual　standard　of　an　average　Athenian　citizen　far　beyond　anything　of　which　there　is　yet　an　example　in　any　other　mass　of　men；　ancient　or　modern。　The　proofs　of　this　are　apparent　in　every　page　of　our　great　historian　of　Greece；　but　we　need　scarcely　look　further　than　to　the　high　quality　of　the　addresses　which　their　great　orators　deemed　best　calculated　to　act　with　effect　on　their　understanding　and　will。　A　benefit　of　the　same　kind；　though　far　less　in　degree；　is　produced　on　Englishmen　of　the　lower　middle　class　by　their　liability　to　be　placed　on　juries　and　to　serve　parish　offices；　which；　though　it　does　not　occur　to　so　many；　nor　is　so　continuous；　nor　introduces　them　to　so　great　a　variety　of　elevated　considerations；　as　to　admit　of　comparison　with　the　public　education　which　every　citizen　of　Athens　obtained　from　her　democratic　institutions；　must　make　them　nevertheless　very　different　beings；　in　range　of　ideas　and　development　of　faculties；　from　those　who　have　done　nothing　in　their　lives　but　drive　a　quill；　or　sell　goods　over　a　counter。　　　Still　more　salutary　is　the　moral　part　of　the　instruction　afforded　by　the　participation　of　the　private　citizen；　if　even　rarely；　in　public　functions。　He　is　called　upon；　while　so　engaged；　to　weigh　interests　not　his　own；　to　be　guided；　in　case　of　conflicting　claims；　by　another　rule　than　his　private　partialities；　to　apply；　at　every　turn；　principles　and　maxims　which　have　for　their　reason　of　existence　the　common　good：　and　he　usually　finds　associated　with　him　in　the　same　work　minds　more　familiarised　than　his　own　with　these　ideas　and　operations；　whose　study　it　will　be　to　supply　reasons　to　his　understanding；　and　stimulation　to　his　feeling　for　the　general　interest。　He　is　made　to　feel　himself　one　of　the　public；　and　whatever　is　for　their　benefit　to　be　for　his　benefit。　Where　this　school　of　public　spirit　does　not　exist；　scarcely　any　sense　is　entertained　that　private　persons；　in　no　eminent　social　situation；　owe　any　duties　to　society；　except　to　obey　the　laws　and　submit　to　the　government。　There　is　no　unselfish　sentiment　of　identification　with　the　public。　Every　thought　or　feeling；　either　of　interest　or　of　duty；　is　absorbed　in　the　individual　and　in　the　family。　The　man　never　thinks　of　any　collective　interest；　of　any　objects　to　be　pursued　jointly　with　others；　but　only　in　competition　with　them；　and　in　some　measure　at　their　expense。　A　neighbour；　not　being　an　ally　or　an　associate；　since　he　is　never　engaged　in　any　common　undertaking　for　joint　benefit；　is　therefore　only　a　rival。　Thus　even　private　morality　suffers；　while　public　is　actually　extinct。　Were　this　the　universal　and　only　possible　state　of　things；　the　utmost　aspirations　of　the　lawgiver　or　the　moralist　could　only　stretch　to　make　the　bulk　of　the　community　a　flock　of　sheep　innocently　nibbling　the　grass　side　by　side。　　　From　these　accumulated　considerations　it　is　evident　that　the　only　government　which　can　fully　satisfy　all　the　exigencies　of　the　social　state　is　one　in　which　the　whole　people　participate；　that　any　participation；　even　in　the　smallest　public　function；　is　useful；　that　the　participation　should　everywhere　be　as　great　as　the　general　degree　of　improvement　of　the　community　will　allow；　and　that　nothing　less　can　be　ultimately　desirable　than　the　admission　of　all　to　a　share　in　the　sovereign　power　of　the　state。　But　since　all　cannot；　in　a　community　exceeding　a　single　small　town；　participate　personally　in　any　but　some　very　minor　portions　of　the　public　business；　it　follows　that　the　ideal　type　of　a　perfect　government　must　be　representative。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Chapter　4　　　Under　what　Social　Conditions　Representative　Government　is　Inapplicable。

　　WE　HAVE　recognised　in　representative　government　the　ideal　type　of　the　most　perfect　polity；　for　which；　in　consequence；　any　portion　of　mankind　are　better　adapted　in　proportion　to　their　degree　of　general　improvement。　As　they　range　lower　and　lower　in　dev