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tterance of feeling； rather than the confidences of the novel or the diary； was looked for。 These women had no thought of the public； their function was to influence distinguished men； and to moderate male impulse and caprice。
The highest praise which could then be given to the great Italian women was that they had the mind and the courage of men。 We have only to observe the thoroughly manly bearing of most of the women in the heroic poems； especially those of Boiardo and Ariosto； to convince ourselves that we have before us the ideal of the time。 The title 'virago；' which is an equivocal compliment in the present day； then implied nothing but praise。 It was borne in all its glory by Caterina Sforza； wife and afterwards widow of Girolamo Riario； whose hereditary possession； Forli； she gallantly defended first against his murderers； and then against Cesare Borgia。 Though finally vanquished； she retained the admiration of her countrymen and the title 'prima donna d'Italia。' This heroic vein can be detected in many of the women of the Renaissance； though none found the same opportunity of showing their heroism to the world。 In Isabella Gonzaga this type is clearly recognizable。
Women of this stamp could listen to novels like those of Bandello； without social intercourse suffering from it。 The ruling genius of society was not； as now； womanhood； or the respect for certain presuppositions； mysteries； and susceptibilities； but the consciousness of energy； of beauty； and of a social state full of danger and opportunity。 And for this reason we find； side by side with the most measured and polished social forms； something our age would call immodesty； forgetting that by which it was corrected and counter… balanced the powerful characters of the women who were exposed to it。
That in all the dialogues and treatises together we can find no absolute evidence on these points is only natural； however freely the nature of love and the position and capacities of women were discussed。
What seems to have been wanting in this society were the young girls who； even when not brought up in the monasteries； were still carefully kept away from it。 It is not easy to say whether their absence was the cause of the greater freedom of conversation； or whether they were removed on account of it。
Even the intercourse with courtesans seems to have assumed a more elevated character； reminding us of the position of the Hetairae in classical Athens。 The famous Roman courtesan Imperia was a woman of intelligence and culture； had learned from a certain Domenico Campana the art of making sonnets； and was not without musical accomplishments。 The beautiful Isabella de Luna； of Spanish extraction； who was reckoned amusing company； seems to have been an odd compound of a kind heart with a shockingly foul tongue； which latter sometimes brought her into trouble。 At Milan； Bandello knew the majestic Caterina di San Celso； who played and sang and recited superbly。 It is clear from all we read on the subject that the distinguished people who visited these women； and from time to time lived with them； demanded from them a considerable degree of intelligence and instruction； and that the famous courtesans were treated with no slight respect and consideration。 Even when relations with them were broken off； their good opinion was still desired； which shows that departed passion had left permanent traces behind。 But on the whole this intellectual intercourse is not worth mentioning by the side of that sanctioned by the recognized forms of social life； and the traces which it has left in poetry and literature are for the most part of a scandalous nature。 We may well be astonished that among the 6；800 persons of this class； who were to be found in Rome in 1490that is； before the appearance of syphilisscarcely a single woman seems to have been remarkable for any higher gifts。 Those whom we have mentioned all belong to the period which immediately followed。 The mode of life； the morals and the philosophy of the public women； who with all their sensuality and greed were not always incapable of deeper passions； as well as the hypocrisy and devilish malice shown by some in their later years； are best set forth by Giraldi； in the novels which form the introduction to the 'Hecatommithi。' Pietro Aretino； in his 'Ragionamenti；' gives us rather a picture of his own depraved character than of this unhappy class of women as they really were。
The mistresses of the princes； as has been pointed out； were sung by poets and painted by artists； and thus have become personally familiar to their contemporaries and to posterity。 But we hardly know more than the name of Alice Perries； and of Clara Dettin； the mistress of Frederick the Victorious； and of Agnes Sorel we have only a half… legendary story。 With the concubines of the Renaissance monarchs Francis I and Henry IIthe case is different。
Domestic Life
After treating of the intercourse of society； let us glance for a moment at the domestic life of this period。 We are commonly disposed to look on the family life of the Italians at this time as hopelessly ruined by the national immorality； and this side of the question will be more fully discussed in the sequel。 For the moment we must content ourselves with pointing out that conjugal infidelity has by no means so disastrous an influence on family life in Italy as in the North； so long at least as certain limits are not overstepped。
The domestic life of the Middle Ages was a product of popular morals； or if we prefer to put it otherwise； a result of the inborn tendencies of national life； modified by the varied circumstances which affected them。 Chivalry at the time of its splendor left domestic economy untouched。 The knight wandered from court to court； and from one battlefield to another。 His homage was given systematically to some other woman than his own wife； and things went how they might at home in the castle。 The spirit of the Renaissance first brought order into domestic life； treating it as a work of deliberate contrivance。 Intelligent economical views； and a rational style of domestic architecture served to promote this end。 But the chief cause of the change was the thoughtful study of all questions relating to social intercourse； to education； to domestic service and organization。
The most precious document on this subject is the treatise on the management of the home by Agnolo Pandolfini （actually written by L。 B。 Alberti； d。 1472）。 He represents a father speaking to his grown…up sons； and initiating them into his method of administration。 We are introduced into a large and wealthy household； which； if governed with moderation and reasonable economy； promises happiness and prosperity for generations to come。 A considerable landed estate； whose produce furnishes the table of the house； and serves as the basis of the family fortune； is combined with some industrial pursuit； such as the weaving of wool or silk。 The dwelling is solid and the food good。 All that has to do with the plan and arrangement of the house is great； durable and costly； but the daily life within it i