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obility also despise trade； but farm their own property； the cultivation of the land even opens the way to a title； it is a respectable but boorish nobility。 In Lombardy the nobles live upon the rent of their inherited estates； descent and the abstinence from any regular calling； constitute nobility。 In Venice； the 'nobili；' the ruling caste； were all merchants。 Similarly in Genoa the nobles and nonnobles were alike merchants and sailors； and only separated by their birth： some few of the former； it is true； still lurked as brigands in their mountain castles。 In Florence a part of the old nobility had devoted themselves to trade； another； and cer… tainly by far the smaller part； enjoyed the satisfaction of their titles； and spent their time； either in nothing at all； or else in hunting and hawking。
The decisive fact was； that nearly everywhere in Italy； even those who might be disposed to pride themselves on their birth could not make good the claims against the power of culture and of wealth； and that their privileges in politics and at court were not sufficient to encourage any strong feeling of caste。 Venice offers only an apparent exception to this rule； for there the 'nobili' led the same life as their fellow…citizens； and were distinguished by few honorary privileges。 The case was certainly different at Naples； which the strict isolation and the ostentatious vanity of its nobility excluded； above all other causes； from the spiritual movement of the Renaissance。 The traditions of medieval Lombardy and Normandy； and the French aristocratic influences which followed； all tended in this direction； and the Aragonese government； which was established by the middle of the fifteenth century； completed the work； and accomplished in Naples what followed a hundred years later in the rest of Italya social transformation in obedience to Spanish ideas； of which the chief features were the contempt for work and the passion for titles。 The effect of this new influence was evident； even in the smaller towns； before the year 1500。 We hear complaints from La Cava that the place had been proverbially rich； as long as it was filled with masons and weavers； whilst now； since instead of looms and trowels nothing but spurs； stirrups and gilded belts was to be seen； since everybody was trying to become Doctor of Laws or of Medicine； Notary； Officer or Knight； the most intolerable poverty prevailed。 In Florence an analogous change appears to have taken place by the time of Cosimo； the first Grand Duke； he is thanked for adopting the young people； who now despise trade and commerce； as knights of his order of St。 Stephen。 This goes straight in the teeth of the good old Florentine custom； by which fathers left property to their children on the condition that they should have some occupation。 But a mania for titles of a curious and ludicrous sort sometimes crossed and thwarted； especially among the Florentines； the levelling influence of art and culture。 This was the passion hood； which became one of the most striking follies at a time when the dignity itself had lost every significance。
'A few years ago；' writes Franco Sacchetti； towards the end of the fourteenth century； 'everybody saw how all the workpeople down to the bakers； how all the wool…carders； usurers money…changers and blackguards of all description； became knights。 Why should an official need knighthood when he goes to preside over some little provincial town？ What has this title to do with any ordinary bread…winning pursuit？ How art thou sunken； unhappy dignity！ Of all the long list of knightly duties； what single one do these knights of ours discharge？ I wished to speak of these things that the reader might see that knighthood is dead。 And as we have gone so far as to confer the honour upon dead men； why not upon figures of wood and stone； and why not upon an ox？' The stories which Sacchetti tells by way of illustration speak plainly enough。 There we read how Bernabo Visconti knighted the victor in a drunken brawl； and then did the same derisively to the vanquished； how Ger… man knights with their decorated helmets and devices were ridiculedand more of the same kind。 At a later period Poggio makes merry over the many knights of his day without a horse and without military training。 Those who wished to assert the privilege of the order； and ride out with lance and colors； found in Florence that they might have to face the government as well as the jokers。
On considering the matter more closely； we shall find that this belated chivalry； independent of all nobility of birth； though partly the fruit of an insane passion for titles； had nevertheless another and a better side。 Tournaments had not yet ceased to be practiced； and no one could take part in them who was not a knight。 But the combat in the lists； and especially the difficult and perilous tilting with the lance； offered a favourable opportunity for the display of strength； skill； and courage； which no one； whatever might be his origin； would willingly neglect in an age which laid such stress on personal merit。
It was in vain that from the time of Petrarch downwards the tournament was denounced as a dangerous folly。 No one was converted by the pathetic appeal of the poet： 'In what book do we read that Scipio and Caesar were skilled at the joust？' The practice became more and more popular in Florence。 Every honest citizen came to consider his tournament now； no doubt； less dangerous than formerlyas a fashionable sport。 Franco Sacchetti has left us a ludicrous picture of one of these holiday cavaliersa notary seventy years old。 He rides out on horseback to Peretola； where the tournament was cheap； on a jade hired from a dyer。 A thistle is stuck by some wag under the tail of the steed； who takes fright； runs away； and carries the helmeted rider； bruised and shaken； back into the city。 The inevitable conclusion of the story is a severe curtain…lecture from the wife； who is not a little enraged at these break…neck follies of her husband。
It may be mentioned in conclusion that a passionate interest in this sport was displayed by the Medici； as if they wished to show private citizens as they were； without noble blood in their veins that the society which surrounded them was in no respect inferior to a Court。 Even under Cosimo （1459）； and afterwards under the elder Pietro； brilliant tournaments were held at Florence。 The younger Pietro neglected the duties of government for these amusements and would never suffer himself to be painted except clad in armor。 The same practice prevailed at the Court of Alexander VI； and when the Cardinal Ascanio Sforza asked the Turkish Prince Djem how he liked the spectacle； the barbarian replied with much discretion that such combats in his country only took place among slaves； since then； in the case of accident； nobody was the worse for it。 The Oriental was unconsciously in accord with the old Romans in condemning the manners of the Middle Ages。
Apart； however； from this particular prop of knighthood； we find here and there in Italy； for example at Ferrara； orders of courtiers whose members