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y； to admire its greatness。 He bound him to no fixed place； to no prescribed form of work； and by no iron necessity； but gave him freedom to will and to love。 'I have set thee；' says the Creator to Adam； 'in the midst of the world； that thou mayst the more easily behold and see all that is therein。 I created thee a being neither heavenly nor earthly； neither mortal nor immortal only； that thou mightest be free to shape and to overcome thyself。 Thou mayst sink into a beast； and be born anew to the divine likeness。 The brutes bring from their mother's body what they will carry with them as long as they live； the higher spirits are from the beginning； or soon after； what they will be for ever。 To thee alone is given a growth and a development depending on thine own free will。 Thou bearest in thee the germs of a universal life。'
Part Five
SOCIETY AND FESTIVALS
Equality of Classes
Every period of civilization which forms a complete and consistent whole manifests itself not only in political life； in religion； art； and science； but also sets its characteristic stamp on social life。 Thus the Middle Ages had their courtly and aristocratic manners and etiquette； differing but little in the various countries of Europe； as well as their peculiar forms of middle…class life。
Italian customs at the time of the Renaissance offer in these respects the sharpest contrasts to medievalism。 The foundation on which they rest is wholly different。 Social intercourse in its highest and most perfect form now ignored all distinctions of caste； and was based simply on the existence of an educated class as we now understand the word。 Birth and origin were without influence； unless combined with leisure and inherited wealth。 Yet this assertion must not be taken in an absolute and unqualified sense； since medieval distinctions still sometimes made themselves felt to a greater or less degree； if only as a means of maintaining equality with the aristocratic pretensions of the less advanced countries of Europe。 But the main current of the time went steadily towards the fusion of classes in the modern sense of the phrase。
The fact was of vital importance that； from certainly the twelfth century onwards； the nobles and the burghers dwelt together within the walls of the cities。 The interests and pleasures of both classes were thus identified； and the feudal lord learned to look at society from another point of view than that of his mountain castle。 The Church； too； in Italy never suffered itself； as in northern countries； to be used as a means of providing for the younger sons of noble families。 Bishoprics； abbacies； and canonries were often given from the most unworthy motives； but still not according to the pedigrees of the applicants； and if the bishops in Italy were more numerous； poorer； and； as a rule； destitute of all sovereign rights； they still lived in the cities where their cathedrals stood； and formed； together with their chapters； an important element in the cultivated society of the place。 In the age of despots and absolute princes which followed； the nobility in most of the cities had the motives and the leisure to give themselves up to a private life free from the political danger and adorned with all that was elegant and enjoyable； but at the same time hardly distinguishable from that of the wealthy burgher。 And after the time of Dante； when the new poetry and literature were in the hands of all Italy； when to this was added the revival of ancient culture and the new interest in man as such； when the successful Condottiere became a prince； and not only good birth； but legitimate birth； ceased to be indispensable for a throne； it might well seem that the age of equality had dawned； and the belief in nobility vanished for ever。
From a theoretical point of view； when the appeal was made to antiquity； the conception of nobility could be both justified and condemned from Aristotle alone。 Dante； for example； derives from Aristotle's definition； 'Nobility rests on excellence and inherited wealth；' his own saying； 'Nobility rests on personal excellence or on that of forefathers。' But elsewhere he is not satisfied with this conclusion。 He blames himself； because even in Paradise； while talking with his ancestor Cacciaguida； he made mention of his noble origin； which is but a mantle from which time is ever cutting something away； unless we ourselves add daily fresh worth to it。 And in the 'Convito' he disconnects 'nobile' and 'nobilita' from every condition of birth； and identifies the idea with the capacity for moral and intellectual eminence； laying a special stress on high culture by calling 'nobilita' the sister of 'filosofia。'
And as time went on； the greater the influence of humanism on the Italian mind； the firmer and more widespread became the conviction that birth decides nothing as to the goodness or badness of a man。 In the fifteenth century this was the prevailing opinion。 Poggio； in his dialogue 'On nobility；' agrees with his interlocutors Niccolo Niccoli； and Lorenzo Medici； brother of the great Cosimo that there is no other nobility than that of personal merit。 The keenest shafts of his ridicule are directed against much of what vulgar prejudice thinks indispensable to an aristocratic life。 'A man is ！111 the farther removed from true nobility； the longer his forefathers have plied the trade of brigands。 The taste for hawking and hunting saviours no more of nobility than the nests and lairs of the hunted creatures of spikenard。 The cultivation of the soil； as practiced by the ancients； would be much nobler than this senseless wandering through the hills and woods； by which men make themselves like to the brutes than to the reasonable creatures。 It may serve well enough as a recreation； but not as the business of a lifetime。' The life of the English and French chivalry in the country or in the woody fastnesses seems to him thoroughly ignoble； and worst of all the doings of the robber…knights of Germany。 Lorenzo here begins to take the part of the nobility； but not which is characteristicappealing to any natural sentiment in its favour； but because Aristotle in the fifth book of the Politics recognizes the nobility as existent； and defines it as resting on excellence and inherited wealth。 To this Niccoli retorts that Aristotle gives this not as his own conviction； but as the popular impression； in his Ethics； where he speaks as he thinks； he calls him noble who strives after that which is truly good。 Lorenzo urges upon him vainly that the Greek word for nobility （Eugeneia） means good birth； Niccoli thinks the Roman word 'nobilis' （i。e。 remark… able） a better one； since it makes nobility depend on a man's deeds。 Together with these discussions； we find a sketch of the conditions of the nobles in various parts of Italy。 In Naples they will not work； and busy themselves neither with their own estates nor with trade and commerce； which they hold to be discreditable； they either loiter at home or ride about on horseback。 The Roman nobility also despise trade； but farm their own property； the cultivation of the land even opens the