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nted in the house of Gano of Mainz； over the toilsome acquisition of the sword Durindana； and so forth。 Tradition； in fact； serves him only as a substratum for episodes； ludicrous fancies； allusions to events of the time （among which some； like the close of cap。 vi。 are exceedingly fine）； and indecent jokes。 Mixed with all this； a certain derision of Ariosto is unmistakable； and it was fortunate for the 'Or… lando Furioso' that the 'Orlandino；' with its Lutheran heresies； was soon put out of the way by the Inquisition。 The parody is evident when （cap。 vi； 28） the house of Gonzaga is deduced from the paladin Guidone； since the Colonna claimed Orlando； the Orsini Rinaldo； and the house of Esteaccording to Ariosto Ruggiero as their ancestors。 Perhaps Ferrante Gonzaga； the patron of the poet； was a party to this sarcasm on the house of Este。
That in the 'Jerusalem Delivered' of Torquato Tasso the delineation of character is one of the chief tasks of the poet； proves only how far his mode of thought differed from that prevalent half a century before。 His admirable work is a true monument of the Counter…reformation which had meanwhile been accomplished； and of the spirit and tendency of that movement。
Biography and in the in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance
Outside the sphere of poetry also； the Italians were the first of all European nations who displayed any remarkable power and inclination accurately to describe man as shown in history； according to his inward and outward characteristics。
It is true that in the Middle Ages considerable attempts were made in the same direction； and the legends of the Church； as a kind of standing biographical task； must； to some extent； have kept alive the interest and the gift for such descriptions。 In the annals of the monasteries and cathedrals； many of the churchmen； such as Meinwerk of Paderborn； Godehard of Hildesheim； and others； are brought vividly before our eyes； and descriptions exist of several of the German emperors； modelled after old authorsparticularly Suetoniuswhich contain admirable features。 Indeed these and other profane 'vitae' came in time to form a continuous counterpart to the sacred legends。 Yet neither Einhard nor Wippo nor Radevicus can be named by the side of Joinville's picture of St。 Louis； which certainly stands almost alone as the first complete spiritual portrait of a modern European nature。 Characters like St。 Louis are rare at all times； and his was favored by the rare good fortune that a sincere and naive observer caught the spirit of all the events and actions of his life； and represented it admirably。 From what scanty sources are we left to guess at the inward nature of Frederick II or of Philip the Fair。 Much of what； till the close of the Middle Ages； passed for biography； is properly speaking nothing but contemporary narrative； written without any sense of what is individual in the subject of the memoir。
Among the Italians； on the contrary； the search for the characteristic features of remarkable men was a prevailing tendency； and this it is which separates them from the other western peoples； among whom the same thing happens but seldom； and in exceptional cases。 This keen eye for individuality belongs only to those who have emerged from the halfconscious life of the race and become themselves individuals。
Under the influence of the prevailing conception of fame an art of comparative biography arose which no longer found it necessary； like Anastasius； Agnellus； and their successors； or like the biographers of the Venetian doges； to adhere to a dynastic or ecclesiastical succession。 It felt itself free to describe a man if and because he was remarkable。 It took as models 。Suetonius； Nepos （the 'viri illustres'）； and Plutarch；…so far as he was known and translated； for sketches of literary history； the lives of the grammarians； rhetoricians； and poets； known to us as the 'Appendices' to Suetonius； seem to have served as patterns； as well as the widely…read life of Virgil by Donatus。
It has already been mentioned that biographical collections lives of famous men and famous womenbegan to appear in the fourteenth century。 Where they do not describe contemporaries； they are naturally dependent on earlier narratives。 The first great original effort is the life of Dante by Boccaccio。 Lightly and rhetorically written； and full； as it is； of arbitrary fancies； this work nevertheless gives us a lively sense of the extraordinary features in Dante's nature。 Then follow； at the end of the fourteenth century； the 'vite' of illustrious Florentines； by Filippo Villani。 They are men of every calling： poets； jurists； physicians； scholars； artists； statesmen； and soldiers； some of them then still living。 Florence is here treated like a gifted family； in which all the members are noticed in whom the spirit of the house expresses itself vigorously。 The descriptions are brief； but show a remarkable eye for what is characteristic； and are noteworthy for including the inward and outward physiognomy in the same sketch。 From that time forward； the Tuscans never ceased to consider the description of man as lying within their special competence； and to them we owe the most valuable portraits of the Italians of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。 Giovanni Cavalcanti； in the appendices to his Florentine history； written before the year 1450； collects instances of civil virtue and abnegation； of political discernment and of military valor； all shown by Florentines。 Pius II gives in his 'Commentaries' valuable portraits of famous contemporaries； and not long ago a separate work of his earlier years； which seems preparatory to these portraits； but which has colors and features that are very singular； was reprinted。 To Jacopo of Volterra we owe piquant sketches of members of the Curia in the time of Sixtus IV。 Vespasiano Fiorentino has often been referred to already； and as a historical authority a high place must be assigned to him； but his gift as a painter of character is not to be compared with that of Machiavelli； Niccolo Valori； Guicciardini； Varchi； Francesco Vettori； and others； by whom European historical literature has probably been as much influenced in this direction as by the ancients。 It must not be forgotten that some of these authors soon found their way into northern countries by means of Latin translations。 And without Giorgio Vasari of Arezzo and his all…important work； we should perhaps to this day have no history of Northern art； or of the art of modern Europe； at all。
Among the biographers of North Italy in the fifteenth century； Bartolommeo Fazio of Spezia holds a high rank。 Platina； born in the territory of Cremona； gives us； in his 'Life of Paul II；' examples of biographical caricatures。 The description of the last Visconti； written by Piercandido Decembrioan enlarged imitation of Suetoniusis of special importance。 Sismondi regrets that so much trouble has been spent on so unworthy an object； but the author would hardly have been equal to deal with a greater man； while he was thoroughly competent to describe the mixed nature of Filippo Mar