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e city； and therefore died uncrowned。 From the same source we learn that the usage was till then uncommon； and was held to be inherited by the ancient Romans from the Greeks。 The most recent source to which the practices could be referred is to be found in the Capitoline contests of musicians； poets； and other artists； founded by Domitian in imitation of the Greeks and celebrated every five years； which may possibly have survived for a time the fall of the Roman Empire； but as few other men would venture to crown themselves； as Dante desired to do； the question arises； to whom did this office belong？ Albertino Mussato was crowned at Padua in 1310 by the bishop and the rector of the University。 The University of Paris； the rector of which was then a Florentine （1341）； and the municipal authorities of Rome； competed for the honour of crowning Petrarch。 His self…elected examiner； King Robert of Anjou； would have liked to perform the ceremony at Naples； but Petrarch preferred to be crowned on the Capitol by the senator of Rome。 This honour was long the highest object of ambition； and so it seemed to Jacobus Pizinga； an illustrious Sicilian magistrate。 Then came the Italian journey of Charles IV； whom it amused to flatter the vanity of ambitious men； and impress the ignorant multitude by means of gorgeous ceremonies。 Start… ing from the fiction that the coronation of poets was a prerogative of the old Roman emperors； and consequently was no less his own； he crowned （May 15； 1355） the Florentine scholar； Zanobi della Strada； at Pisa； to the great disgust of Boccaccio； who declined to recognize this 'laurea Pisana' as legitimate。 Indeed； it might be fairly asked with what right this stranger； half Slavonic by birth； came to sit in judgement on the merits of Italian poets。 But from henceforth the emperors crowned poets wherever they went on their travels； and in the fifteenth century the popes and other princes assumed the same right； till at last no regard whatever was paid to place or circumstances。 In Rome； under Sixtus IV； the academy of Pomponius L'tus gave the wreath on its own authority。 The Florentines had the good taste not to crown their famous humanists till after death。 Carlo Aretino and Leonardo Aretino were thus crowned； the eulogy of the first was pronounced by Matteo Palmieri； of the latter by Giannozzo Manetti； before the members of the council and the whole people； the orator standing at the head of the bier； on which the corpse lay clad in a silken robe。 Carlo Aretino was further honoured by a tomb in Santa Croce； which is among the most beautiful in the whole course of the Renaissance。
Universities and Schools
The influence of antiquity on culture； of which we have now to speak； presupposes that the new learning had gained possession of the universities。 This was so； but by no means to the extent and with the results which might have been expected。
Few of the Italian universities show themselves in their full vigor till the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries； when the increase of wealth rendered a more systematic care for education possible。 At first there were generally three sorts of professorshipsone for civil law； another for canonical law； the third for medicine； in course of time professorships of rhetoric； of philosophy； and of astronomy were added； the last commonly； though not always； identical with astrology。 The salaries varied greatly in different cases。 Sometimes a capital sum was paid down。 With the spread of culture； competition became so active that the different universities tried to entice away distinguished teachers from one another； under which circumstances Bologna is said to have sometimes devoted the half of its public income （20；000 ducats） to the university。 The appointments were as a rule made only for a certain time； sometimes for only half a year； so that the teachers were forced to lead a wandering life； like actors。 Appointments for life were； however； not unknown。 Sometimes the promise was exacted not to teach elsewhere what had already been taught at one place。 There were also voluntary； unpaid professors。
Of the chairs which have been mentioned； that of rhetoric was especially sought by the humanist； yet it depended only on his familiarity with the matter of ancient learning whether or no be could aspire to those of law； medicine； philosophy； or astronomy。 The inward conditions of the science of the day were as variable as the outward conditions of the teacher。 Certain jurists and physicians received by far the largest salaries of all； the former chiefly as consulting lawyers for the suits and claims of the State which employed them。 In Padua a lawyer of the fifteenth century received a salary of 1；000 ducats； and it was proposed to appoint a celebrated physician with a yearly payment of 2；000 ducats； and the right of private practice； the same man having previously received 700 gold florins at Pisa。 When the jurist Bartolommeo Socini； professor at Pisa； accepted a Venetian appointment at Padua； and was on the point of starting on his journey； he was arrested by the Florentine government and only released on payment of bail to the amount of 18；000 gold florins。 The high estimation in which these branches of science were held makes it intelligible why distinguished philologists turned their attention to law and medicine； while on the other hand specialists were more and more compelled to acquire something of a wide literary culture。 We shall presently have occasion to speak of the work of the humanists in other departments of practical life。
Nevertheless； the position of the philologists； as such； even where the salary was large； and did not exclude other sources of income； was on the whole uncertain and temporary； so that one and the same teacher could be connected with a great variety of institutions。 It is evident that change was desired for its own sake； and something fresh expected from each newcomer； as was natural at a time when science was in the making； and consequently depended to no small degree on the personal influence of the teacher。 Nor was it always the case that a lecturer on classical authors really belonged to the university of the town where he taught。 Communication was so easy； and the supply of suitable accommodation； in monasteries and elsewhere； was so abundant； that a private appointment was often practicable。 In the first decades of the fifteenth century； when the University of Florence was at its greatest brilliance； when the courtiers of Eugenius IV； and perhaps even of Martin V thronged the lecture…room； when Carlo Aretino and Filelfo were competing for the largest audience； there existed； not only an almost complete university among the Augustinians of Santo Spirito； not only an association of scholars among the Camaldolesi of the Angeli； but individuals of mark； either singly or in common； arranged to provide philosophical and philological teaching for themselves and others。 Linguistic and antiquarian studies in Rome had next to no connection with the university （Sapienza）； and depended almost exclusively either on the favour of individual p