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in a different country and under other traditions； cannot be said。 But； as heirs of their house； they inherited that monstrous capital of cruelty and cowardice which had been accumulated from generation to generation。
Giovanni Maria； too； is famed for his dogs； which were no longer； however； used for hunting but for tearing human bodies。 Tradition has preserved their names； like those of the bears of Emperor Valentinian I。 In May； 1409； when war was going on； and the starving populace cried to him in the streets； _Pace！ Pace！_ he let loose his mercenaries upon them； and 200 lives were sacrificed； under penalty of the gallows it was forbidden to utter the words pace and guerra； and the priests were ordered； instead of _dona nobis pacem_； to say _tranquillitatem_！ At last a band of conspirators took advantage of the moment when Facino Cane； the chief Condotierre of the insane ruler； lay in at Pavia； and cut down Giovanni Maria in the church of San Gottardo at Milan； the dying Facino on the same day made his officers swear to stand by the heir Filippo Maria； whom he himself urged his wife to take for a second husband。 His wife； Beatrice di Tenda； followed his advice。 We shall have occasion to speak of Filippo Maria later on。
And in times like these Cola di Rienzi was dreaming of founding on the rickety enthusiasm of the corrupt population of Rome a new State which was to comprise all Italy。 By the side of rulers such as those whom we have described； he seems no better than a poor deluded fool。
Despots of the Fifteenth Century
The despotisms of the fifteenth century show an altered character。 Many of the less important tyrants； and some of the greater； like the Scala and the Carrara had disappeared； while the more powerful ones； aggrandized by conquest； had given to their systems each its characteristic development。 Naples for example received a fresh and stronger impulse from the new Aragonese dynasty。 A striking feature of this epoch is the attempt of the Condottieri to found independent dynasties of their own。 Facts and the actual relations of things； apart from traditional estimates； are alone regarded； talent and audacity win the great prizes。 The petty despots； to secure a trustworthy support； begin to enter the service of the larger States； and become themselves Condottieri； receiving in return for their services money and immunity for their misdeeds； if not an increase of territory。 All； whether small or great； must exert themselves more； must act with greater caution and calculation； and must learn to refrain from too wholesale barbarities； only so much wrong is permitted by public opinion as is necessary for the end in view； and this the impartial bystander certainly finds no fault with。 No trace is here visible of that half…religious loyalty by which the legitimate princes of the West were supported； personal popularity is the nearest approach we can find to it。 Talent and calculation are the only means of advancement。 A character like that of Charles the Bold； which wore itself out in the passionate pursuit of impracticable ends； was a riddle to the Italians。 'The Swiss were only peasants； and if they were all killed； that would be no satisfaction for the Burgundian nobles who might fall in the war。 If the Duke got possession of all Switzerland without a struggle； his income would not be 5；000 ducats the greater。' The mediaeval features in the character of Charles； his chivalrous aspirations and ideals； had long become unintelligible to the Italians。 The diplomatists of the South。 when they saw him strike his officers and yet keep them in his service； when he maltreated his troops to punish them for a defeat； and then threw the blame on his counsellors in the presence of the same troops； gave him up for lost。 Louis XI； on the other hand； whose policy surpasses that of the Italian princes in their own style； and who was an avowed admirer of Francesco Sforza； must be placed in all that regards culture and refinement far below these rulers。
Good and evil lie strangely mixed together in the Italian States of the fifteenth century。 The personality of the ruler is so highly developed； often of such deep significance； and so characteristic of the conditions and needs of the time； that to form an adequate moral judgement on it is no easy task。
The foundation of the system was and remained illegitimate； and nothing could remove the curse which rested upon it。 The imperial approval or investiture made no change in the matter； since the people attached little weight to the fact that the despot had bought a piece of parchment somewhere in foreign countries； or from some stranger passing through his territory。 If the Emperor had been good for anything； so ran the logic of uncritical common sense； he would never have let the tyrant rise at all。 Since the Roman expedition of Charles IV； the emperors had done nothing more in Italy than sanction a tyranny which had arisen without their help； they could give it no other practical authority than what might flow from an imperial charter。 The whole conduct of Charles in Italy was a scandalous political comedy。 Matteo Villani relates how the Visconti escorted him round their territory； and at last out of it； how he went about like a hawker selling his wares （privileges； etc。） for money； what a mean appearance he made in Rome； and how at the end； without even drawing the sword； he returned with replenished coffers across the Alps。 Sigismund came； on the first occasion at least （1414）； with the good intention of persuading John XXIII to take part in his council； it was on that journey； when Pope and Emperor were gazing from the lofty tower of Cremona on the panorama of Lombardy； that their host； the tyrant Gabrino Fondolo； was seized with the desire to throw them both over。 On his second visit Sigismund came as a mere adventurer； for more than half a year he remained shut up in Siena； like a debtor in gaol； and only with difficulty； and at a later period； succeeded in being crowned in Rome。 And what can be thought of Frederick III？ His journeys to Italy have the air of holiday…trips or pleasure…tours made at the expense of those who wanted him to confirm their prerogatives； or whose vanity is flattered to entertain an emperor。 The latter was the case with Alfonso of Naples； who paid 150；000 florins for the honour of an imperial visit。 At Ferrara； on his second return from Rome （1469）； Frederick spent a whole day without leaving his chamber； distributing no less than eighty titles； he created knights； counts； doctors。 notariescounts； indeed； of different degrees； as； for instance； counts palatine； counts with the right to create doctors up to the number of five； counts with the rights to legitimatize bastards； to appoint notaries； and so forth。 The Chancellor； however； expected in return for the patents in question a gratuity which was thought excessive at Ferrara。 The opinion of Borso； himself created Duke of Modena and Reggio in return for an annual payment of 4；000 gold florins； when his imperial patron was distributing titles and diplomas to all the little court； is not mentio