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f the territory in which they exist； the larger principalities were constantly tempted to swallow up the smaller。 Whole hecatombs of petty rulers were sacrificed at this time to the Visconti alone。 As a result of this outward danger an inward ferment was in ceaseless activity； and the effect of the situation on the character of the ruler was generally of the most sinister kind。 Absolute power； with its temptations to luxury and unbridled selfishness； and the perils to which he was exposed from enemies and conspirators； turned him almost inevitably into a tyrant in the worst sense of the word。 Well for him if he could trust his nearest relations！ But where all was illegitimate； there could be no regular law of inheritance； either with regard to the succession or to the division of the ruler's property； and consequently the heir； if incompetent or a minor； was liable in the interest of the family itself to be supplanted by an uncle or cousin of more resolute character。 The acknowledgment or exclusion of the bastards was a fruitful source of contest and most of these families in consequence were plagued with a crowd of discontented and vindictive kinsmen。 This circumstance gave rise to continual outbreaks of treason and to frightful scenes of domestic bloodshed。 Sometimes the pretenders lived abroad in exile； like the Visconti； who practiced the fisherman's craft on the Lake of Garda； viewed the situation with patient indifference。 When asked by a messenger of his rival when and how he thought of returning to Milan； he gave the reply； 'By the same means as those by which I was expelled； but not till his crimes have outweighed my own。' Sometimes； too； the despot was sacrificed by his relations； with the view of saving the family； to the public conscience which he had too grossly outraged。 In a few cases the government was in the hands of the whole family； or at least the ruler was bound to take their advice； and here； too； the distribution of property and influence often led to bitter disputes。
The whole of this system excited the deep and persistent hatred of the Florentine writers of that epoch。 Even the pomp and display with which the despot was perhaps less anxious to gratify his own vanity than to impress the popular imagination； awakened their keenest sarcasm。 Woe to an adventurer if he fell into their hands； like the upstart Doge Agnello of Pisa （1364）； who used to ride out with a golden scepter； and show himself at the window of his house； 'as relics are shown；' reclining on embroidered drapery and cushions； served like a pope or emperor； by kneeling attendants。 More often； however； the old Florentines speak on this subject in a tone of lofty seriousness。 Dante saw and characterized well the vulgarity and commonplace which marked the ambition of the new princes。 'What else mean their trumpets and their bells； their horns and their flutes； but 〃come； hangmen come； vultures！〃' The castle of the tyrant； as pictured by the popular mind； is lofty and solitary； full of dungeons and listening…tubes； the home of cruelty and misery。 Misfortune is foretold to all who enter the service of the despot； who even becomes at last himself an object of pity： he must needs be the enemy of all good and honest men： he can trust no one and can read in the faces of his subjects the expectation of his fall。 'As despotisms rise； grow； and are consolidated； so grows in their midst the hidden element which must produce their dissolution and ruin。' But the deepest ground of dislike has not been stated； Florence was then the scene of the richest development of human individuality； while for the despots no other individuality could be suffered to live and thrive but their own and that of their nearest dependents。 The control of the individual was rigorously carried out； even down to the establishment of a system of passports。
The astrological superstitions and the religious unbelief of many of the tyrants gave； in the minds of their contemporaries； a peculiar color to this awful and God…forsaken existence。 When the last Carrara could no longer defend the walls and gates of the plague…stricken Padua； hemmed in on all sides by the Venetians （1405）； the soldiers of the guard heard him cry to the devil 'to come and kill him。'
* * *
The most complete and instructive type of the tyranny of the fourteenth century is to be found unquestionably among the Visconti of Milan； from the death of the Archbishop Giovanni onwards （1354）。 The family likeness which shows itself between Bernabo and the worst of the Roman Emperors is unmistakable； the most important public object was the prince's boar…hunting； whoever interfered with it was put to death with torture； the terrified people were forced to maintain 5；000 boar hounds； with strict responsibility for their health and safety。 The taxes were extorted by every conceivable sort of compulsion； seven daughters of the prince received a dowry of 100；000 gold florins apiece； and an enormous treasure was collected。 On the death of his wife （1384） an order was issued 'to the subjects' to share his grief； as once they had shared his joy； and to wear mourning for a year。 The _coup de main_ （1385） by which his nephew Giangaleazzo got him into his powerone of those brilliant plots which make the heart of even late historians beat more quickly was strikingly characteristic of the man 。
In Giangaleazzo that passion for the colossal which was common to most of the despots shows itself on the largest scale。 He undertook； at the cost of 300；000 golden florins； the construction of gigantic dikes； to divert in case of need the Mincio from Mantua and the Brenta from Padua； and thus to render these cities defenseless。 It is not impossible； indeed； that he thought of draining away the lagoons of Venice。 He founded that most wonderful of all convents； the Certosa of Pavia and the cathedral of Milan； 'which exceeds in size and splendor all the churches of Christendom。' The palace in Pavia； which his father Galeazzo began and which he himself finished； was probably by far the most magnificent of the princely dwellings of Europe。 There he transferred his famous library； and the great collection of relics of the saints； in which he placed a peculiar faith。 It would have been strange indeed if a prince of this character had not also cherished the highest ambitions in political matters。 King Wenceslaus made him Duke （1395）； he was hoping for nothing less than the Kingdom of Italy or the Imperial crown； when （1402） he fell ill and died。 His whole territories are said to have paid him in a single year； besides the regular contribution of 1；200；000 gold florins； no less than 800；000 more in extraordinary subsidies。 After his death the dominions which he had brought together by every sort of violence fell to pieces： and for a time even the original nucleus could with difficulty be maintained by his successors。 What might have become of his sons Giovanni Maria （died 1412） and Filippo Maria （died 1447）； had they lived in a different country and under other traditions； cannot be said。 But； as heirs of their house；