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rs embezzled the contributions sent for this purpose from all parts of Christendom； and degraded the indulgences granted in return for them into a private commercial speculation。 Innocent VIII consented to be gaoler to the fugitive Prince Djem； for a salary paid by the prisoner's brother Bajazet II； and Alexander VI supported the steps taken by Lodovico il Moro in Constantinople to further a Turkish assault upon Venice （1498）； whereupon the latter threatened him with a Council。 It is clear that the notorious alliance between Francis I and Soliman II was nothing new or unheard of。
Indeed； we find instances of whole populations to whom it seemed no particular crime to go over bodily to the Turks。 Even if it were held out as a threat to oppressive governments； this is at least a proof that the idea had become familiar。 As early as 1480 Battista Mantovano gives us clearly to understand that most of the inhabitants of the Adriatic coast foresaw something o f this kind； and that Ancona in particular desired it。 When Romagna was suffering from the oppressive government of Leo X； a deputy from Ravenna said openly to the Legate； Cardinal Giulio Medici： 'Monsignore； the honorable Republic of Venice will not have us； for fear of a dispute with the Holy See； but if the Turk comes to Ragusa we will put ourselves into his hands。'
It was a poor but not wholly groundless consolation for the enslavement of Italy then begun by the Spaniards； that the country was at least secured from the relapse into barbarism which would have awaited it under the Turkish rule。 By itself； divided as it was； it could hardly have escaped this fate。
If； with all these drawbacks； the Italian statesmanship of this period deserves our praise； it is only on the ground of its practical and unprejudiced treatment of those questions which were not affected by fear； passion； or malice。 Here was no feudal system after the northern fashion； with its artificial scheme of rights； but the power which each possessed he held in practice as in theory。 Here was no attendant nobility to foster in the mind of the prince the mediaeval sense of honour with all its strange consequences； but princes and counsellors were agreed in acting according to the exigencies of the particular case and to the end they had in view。 Towards the men whose services were used and towards allies； come from what quarter they might； no pride of caste was felt which could possibly estrange a supporter； and the class of the Condottieri； in which birth was a matter of indifference； shows clearly enough in what sort of hands the real power lay； and lastly； the government； in the hands of an enlightened despot； had an incomparably more accurate acquaintance with its own country and with that of its neighbors than was possessed by northern contemporaries； and estimated the economical and moral capacities of friend and foe down to the smallest particular。 The rulers were； notwithstanding grave errors； born masters of statistical science。 With such men negotiation was possible； it might be presumed that they would be convinced and their opinion modified when practical reasons were laid before them。 When the great Alfonso of Naples was （1434） a prisoner of Filippo Maria Visconti； he was able to satisfy his gaoler that the rule of the House of Anjou instead of his own at Naples would make the French masters of Italy； Filippo Maria set him free without ransom and made an alliance with him。 A northern prince would scarcely have acted in the same way； certainly not one whose morality in other respects was like that of Visconti。 What confidence was felt in the power of self…interest is shown by the celebrated visit （1478） which Lorenzo Magnifico； to the universal astonishment of the Florentines； paid the faithless Ferrante at Naplesa man who would certainly be tempted to keep him a prisoner； and was by no means too scrupulous to do so。 For to arrest a powerful monarch； and then to let him go alive； after extorting his signature and otherwise insulting him； as Charles the Bold did to Louis XI at Peronne （1468）； seemed madness to the Italians； so that Lorenzo was expected to come back covered with glory； or else not to come back at all。 The art of political persuasion was at this time raised to a pointespecially by the Venetian ambassadors of which northern nations first obtained a conception from the Italians； and of which the official addresses give a most imperfect idea。 These are mere pieces of humanistic rhetoric。 Nor； in spite of an otherwise ceremonious etiquette was there in case of need any lack of rough and frank speaking in diplomatic intercourse。 A man like Machiavelli appears in his 'Legazioni' in an almost pathetic light。 Furnished with scanty instructions； shabbily equipped； and treated as an agent of inferior rank； he never loses his gift of free and wide observation or his pleasure in picturesque description。
A special division of this work will treat of the study of man individually and nationally； which among the Italians went hand in hand with the study of the outward conditions of human life。
War as a Work of Art
It must here be briefly indicated by what steps the art of war assumed the character of a product of reflection。 Throughout the countries of the West the education of the individual soldier in the Middle Ages was perfect within the limits of the then prevalent system of defence and attack： nor was there any want of ingenious inventors in the arts of besieging and of fortification。 But the development both of strategy and of tactics was hindered by the character and duration of military service； and by the ambition of the nobles； who disputed questions of precedence in the face of the enemy； and through simple want of discipline caused the loss of great battles like Crecy and Maupertuis。 Italy； on the contrary； was the first country to adopt the system of mercenary troops； which demanded a wholly different organization； and the early intro… duction of firearms did its part in making war a democratic pursuit； not only because the strongest castles were unable to withstand a bombardment； but because the skill of the engineer； of the gunfounder； and of the artillerist men belonging to another class than the nobilitywas now of the first importance in a campaign。 It was felt； with regret； that the value of the individual； which had been the soul of the small and admirably organized bands of mercenaries； would suffer from these novel means of destruction； which did their work at a distance； and there were Condottieri who opposed to the utmost the introduction at least of the musket； which had lately been invented in Germany。 We read that Paolo Vitelli； while recognizing and himself adopting the cannon； put out the eyes and cut off the hands of the captured 'schioppettieri' （arquebusiers） because he held it unworthy that a gallant； and it might be noble； knight should be wounded and laid low by a common； despised foot soldier。 On the whole； however； the new discoveries were accepted and turned to useful account； till the Italians became the teachers of all Europe； both in the build… ing o