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parts of the Mediterranean； reserving to himself the monopoly of many commodities； and restricting in various ways the commerce of his subjects。 The Fatimite Caliphs； with all their esoteric unbelief； were； at least in their earlier history； tolerant of all the differences in the religious faith of their people； Frederick； on the other hand； crowned his system of government by a religious inquisition； which will seem the more reprehensible when we remember that in the persons of the heretics he was persecuting the representatives of a free municipal life。 Lastly； the internal police； and the kernel of the army for foreign service； was composed of Saracens who had been brought over from Sicily to Nocera and Lucera men who were deaf to the cry of misery and careless of the ban of the Church。 At a later period the subjects； by whom the use of weapons had long been forgotten； were passive witnesses of the fall of Manfred and of the seizure of the government by Charles of Anjou； the latter continued to use the system which he found already at work。
At the side of the centralizing Emperor appeared a usurper of the most peculiar kind； his vicar and son…in…law； Ezzelino da Romano。 He stands as the representative of no system of government or administration； for all his activity was wasted in struggles for supremacy in the eastern part of Upper Italy； but as a political type he was a figure of no less importance for the future than his imperial protector Frederick。 The conquests and usurpations which had hitherto taken place in the Middle Ages rested on real or pretended inheritance and other such claims； or else were effected against unbelievers and excommunicated persons。 Here for the first time the attempt was openly made to found a throne by wholesale murder and endless barbarities； by the adoption in short； of any means with a view to nothing but the end pursued。 None of his successors； not even Cesare Borgia； rivalled the colossal guilt of Ezzelino； but the example once set was not forgotten； and his fall led to no return of justice among the nations and served as no warning to future transgressors。
It was in vain at such a time that St。 Thomas Aquinas； born subject of Frederick； set up the theory of a constitutional monarchy； in which the prince was to be supported by an upper house named by himself； and a representative body elected by the people。 Such theories found no echo outside the lecture … room； and Frederick and Ezzelino were and remain for Italy the great political phenomena of the thirteenth century。 Their personality； already half legendary； forms the most important subject of 'The Hundred Old Tales；' whose original composition falls certainly within this century。 In them Ezzelino is spoken of with the awe which all mighty impressions leave behind them。 His person became the centre of a whole literature from the chronicle of eye…witnesses to the half…mythical tragedy of later poets。
Despots of the Fourteenth Century
The tyrannies； great and small； of the fourteenth century afford constant proof that examples such as these were not thrown away。 Their misdeeds cried forth loudly and have been circumstantially told by historians。 As States depending for existence on themselves alone； and scientifically organized with a view to this object； they present to us a higher interest than that of mere narrative。
The deliberate adaptation of means to ends； of which no prince out of Italy had at that time a conception； joined to almost absolute power within the limits of the State； produced among the despots both men and modes of life of a peculiar character。 The chief secret of government in the hands of the prudent ruler lay in leaving the incidence of taxation as far as possible where he found it； or as he had first arranged it。 The chief sources of income were： a land tax； based on a valuation； definite taxes on articles of consumption and duties on exported and imported goods： together with the private fortune of the ruling house。 The only possible increase was derived from the growth of business and of general prosperity。 Loans； such as we find in the free cities； were here unknown； a well…planned confiscation was held a preferable means of raising money； provided only that it left public credit unshakenan end attained； for example； by the truly Oriental practice of deposing and plundering the director of the finances。
Out of this income the expenses of the little court； of the bodyguard； of the mercenary troops； and of the public buildings were met； as well as of the buffoons and men of talent who belonged to the personal attendants of the prince。 The illegitimacy of his rule isolated the tyrant and surrounded him with constant danger； the most honorable alliance which he could form was with intellectual merit； without regard to its origin。 The liberality of the northern princes of the thirteenth century was confined to the knights； to the nobility which served and sang。 It was otherwise with the Italian despot。 With his thirst for fame and his passion for monumental works； it was talent； not birth； which he needed。 In the company of the poet and the scholar he felt himself in a new position； almost； indeed； in possession of a new legitimacy。
No prince was more famous in this respect than the ruler of Verona； Can Grande della Scala； who numbered among the illustrious exiles whom he entertained at his court representatives of the whole of Italy。 The men of letters were not ungrateful。 Petrarch； whose visits at the courts of such men have been so severely censured； sketched an ideal picture of a prince of the fourteenth century。 He demands great things from his patron； the lord of Padua； but in a manner which shows that he holds him capable of them。 'Thou must not be the master but the father of thy subjects； and must love them as thy children； yea； as members of thy body。 Weapons； guards； and soldiers thou mayest employ against the enemy…with thy subjects goodwill is sufficient。 By citizens； of course； I mean those who love the existing order； for those who daily desire change are rebels and traitors； and against such a stern justice may take its course。'
Here follows； worked out in detail； the purely modern fiction of the omnipotence of the State。 The prince is to take everything into his charge； to maintain and restore churches and public buildings； to keep up the municipal police； to drain the marshes； to look after the supply of wine and corn； so to distribute the taxes that the people can recognize their necessity； he is to support the sick and the helpless； and to give his protection and society to distinguished scholars； on whom his fame in after ages will depend。
But whatever might be the brighter sides of the system； and the merits of individual rulers； yet the men of the fourteenth century were not without a more or less distinct consciousness of the brief and uncertain tenure of most of these despotisms。 Inasmuch as political institutions like these are naturally secure in proportion to the size of the territory in which they exist； the larger principalities were constantly tempted to swallow u