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gy remained more or less in fashion； but seems not to have governed human life in the way it formerly had done。 The art of painting； which in the fifteenth century had done its best to foster the delusion now expressed the altered tone of thought。 Raphael； in the cupola of the Capella Chigi； represents the gods of the different planets and the starry firmament； watched； however； and guided by beautiful angel…figures； and receiving from above the blessing of the eternal Father。 There was also another cause which now began to tell against astrology in Italy。 The Spaniards took no interest in it； not even the generals； and those who wished to gain their favour declared open war against the half…heretical； half… Mohammedan science。 It is true that Guicciardini writes in the year 1529： 'How happy are the astrologers； who are believed if they tell one truth to a hundred lies； while other people lose all credit if they tell one lie to a hundred truths。' But the contempt for astrology did not necessarily lead to a return to the belief in Providence。 It could as easily lead to an indefinite fatalism。
In this respect； as in others； Italy was unable to make its own way healthily through the ferment of the Renaissance； because the foreign invasion and the Counter…Reformation came upon it in the middle。 Without such interfering causes its own strength would have enabled it thoroughly to get rid of these fantastic illusions。 Those who hold that the onslaught of the strangers and the Catholic reactions were necessities for which the Italian people was itself solely responsible； will look on the spiritual bankruptcy which they produced as a just retribution。 But it is a pity that the rest of Europe had indirectly to pay so large a part of the penalty。
The belief in omens seems a much more innocent matter than astrology。 The Middle Ages had everywhere inherited them in abundance from the various pagan religions； and Italy did not differ in this respect from other countries。 What is characteristic of Italy is the support lent by humanism to the popular superstition。 The pagan inheritance was here backed up by a pagan literary development。
The popular superstition of the Italians rested largely on premonitions and inferences drawn from ominous occurrences。 with which a good deal of magic； mostly of an innocent sort； was connected。 There was； however。 no lack of learned humanists who boldly ridiculed these delusions； and to whose attacks we partly owe the knowledge of them。 Gioviano Pontano； the author of the great astrological work already mentioned above； enumerates with pity in his 'Charon' a long string of Neapolitan superstitionsthe grief of the women when a fowl or goose caught the pip； the deep anxiety of the nobility if a hunting falcon did not come home； or if a horse sprained its foot； the magical formulae of the Apulian peasants； recited on three Saturday evenings； when mad dogs were at large。 The animal kingdom； as in antiquity； was regarded as specially significant in this respect； and the behavior of the lions； leopards； and other beasts kept by the State gave the people all the more food for reflection； because they had come to be considered as living symbols of the State。 During the siege of Florence； in 1597 an eagle which had been shot at fled into the city； and the Signoria gave the bearer four ducats because the omen was good。 Certain times and places were favourable or unfavorable； or even decisive one way or the other； for certain actions。 The Florentines； so Varchi tells us； held Saturday to be the fateful day on which all important events； good as well as bad； commonly happened。 Their prejudice against marching out to war through a particular street has been already mentioned。 At Perugia one of the gates； the 'Porta Eburnea；' was thought lucky； and the Baglioni always went out to fight through it。 Meteors and the appearance of the heavens were as significant in Italy as elsewhere in the Middle Ages； and the popular imagination saw warring armies in an unusual formation of clouds； and heard the clash of their collision high in the air。 The superstition became a more serious matter when it attached itself to sacred things； when figures of the Virgin wept or moved the eyes； or when public calamities were associated with some alleged act of impiety； for which the people demanded expiation。 In 1478； when Piacenza was visited with a violent and prolonged rainfall； it was said that there would be no dry weather till a certain usurer； who had been lately buried in San Francesco； had ceased to rest in consecrated earth。 As the bishop was not obliging enough to have the corpse dug up the young fellows of the town took it by force； dragged it down the streets amid frightful confusion； and at last threw it into the Po。 Even Politian accepted this point of view in speaking of Giacomo Pazzi； one of the chiefs of the conspiracy of 1478； In Florence； which is called after his family。 When he was put to death； he devoted his soul to Satan with fearful words； here； too； rain followed and threatened to ruin the harvest； here； too； a party of men； mostly peasants； dug up the body in the church； and immediately the clouds departed and the sun shone'so gracious was fortune to the opinion of the people；' adds the great scholar。 The corpse was first cast into unhallowed ground； the next day dug up； and after a horrible procession through the city thrown into the Arno。
These facts and the like bear a popular character； and might have occurred in the tenth； just as well as in the sixteenth century。 But now comes the literary influence of antiquity。 We know positively that the humanists were peculiarly accessible to prodigies and auguries； and instances of this have been already quoted。 If further evidence were needed； it would be found in Poggio。 The same radical thinker who denied the rights of noble birth and the inequality of men； not only believed in all the mediaeval stories of ghosts and devils； but also in prodigies after the ancient pattern； like those said to have occurred on the last visit of Pope Eugenius IV to Florence。 'Near Como there were seen one evening four thousand dogs； who took the road to Germany； these were followed by a great herd of cattle； and these by an army on foot and horseback； some with no heads and some with almost invisible heads； and then a gigantic horseman with another herd of cattle behind him。' Poggio also believes in a battle of magpies and jackdaws。 He even relates； perhaps without being aware of it； a well…preserved piece of ancient mythology。 On the Dalmatian coast a Triton had appeared； bearded and horned； a genuine sea…satyr； ending in fins and a tail； he carried away women and children from the shore； till five stout…hearted washerwomen killed him with sticks and stones。 A wooden model of the monster； which was exhibited at Ferrara； makes the whole story credible to Poggio。 Though there were no more oracles； and it was no longer possible to take counsel of the gods； yet it became again the fashion to open Virgil at hazard； and take the passage hit upon as an omen （'Sorted Virgilianae'）。 Nor can t