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stars；' he makes his Marco Lambert say （'Purgatorio；' xvi； 73）； 'the stars give the first impulse to your actions； but a light is given you to know good and evil； and free will； which； if it endure the strain in its first battlings with the heavens； at length gains the whole victory； if it be well nurtured。'
Others might seek the necessity which annulled human freedom in another power than the stars； but the question was henceforth an open and inevitable one。 So far as it was a question for the schools or the pursuit of isolated thinkers； its treatment belongs to the historian of philosophy。 But inasmuch as it entered into the consciousness of a wider public； it is necessary for us to say a few words respecting it。
The fourteenth century was chiefly stimulated by the writings of Cicero； who； though in fact an eclectic； yet； by his habit of setting forth the opinions of different schools； without coming to a decision between them； exercised the influence of a skeptic。 Next in importance came Seneca； and the few works of Aristotle which had been translated into Latin。 The immediate fruit of these studies was the capacity to reflect on great subjects； if not in direct opposition to the authority of the Church； at all events independently of it。
In the course of the fifteenth century the works of antiquity were discovered and diffused with extraordinary rapidity。 All the writings of the Greek philosophers which we ourselves possess were now； at least in the form of Latin translations； in everybody's hands。 It is a curious fact that some of the most zealous apostles of this new culture were men of the strictest piety； or even ascetics。 Fra Ambrogio Camaldolese； as a spiritual dignitary chiefly occupied with ecclesiastical affairs； and as a literary man with the translation of the Greek Fathers of the Church； could not repress the humanistic impulse； and at the request of Cosimo de' Medici； undertook to translate Diogenes Laertius into Latin。 His contemporaries； Niccolo Niccoli； Giannozzo Manetti； Donato Acciaiuoli； and Pope Nicholas V； united to a many…sided humanism profound biblical scholarship and deep piety。 In Vittorino da Feltre the same temper has been already noticed。 The same Maffeo Vegio； who added a thirteenth book to the Aeneid； had an enthusiasm for the memory of St。 Augustine and his mother； Monica； which cannot have been without a deeper influence upon him。 The result of all these tendencies was that the Platonic Academy at Florence deliberately chose for its object the reconciliation of the spirit of antiquity with that of Christianity。 It was a remarkable oasis in the humanism of the period。
This humanism was in fact pagan； and became more and more so as its sphere widened in the fifteenth century。 Its representatives； whom we have already described as the advance guard of an unbridled individualism； display as a rule such a character that even their religion； which is sometimes professed very definitely； becomes a matter of indifference to us。 They easily got the name of atheists； if they showed themselves indifferent to religion and spoke freely against the Church； but not one of them ever professed； or dared to profess； a formal； philosophical atheism。 If they sought for any leading principle； it must have been a kind of superficial rationalisma careless inference from the many and contradictory opinions of antiquity with which they busied themselves； and from the discredit into which the Church and her doctrines had fallen This was the sort of reasoning which was near bringing Galeotto Martio to the stake； had not his former pupil； Pope Sixtus IV； perhaps at the request of Lorenzo de' Medici； saved him from the hands of the Inquisition。 Galeotto had ventured to write that the man who lived uprightly； and acted according to the natural law born within him； would go to heaven； whatever nation he belonged to。
Let us take； by way of example； the religious attitude of one of the smaller men in the great army。 Codrus Urceus was first the tutor of the last Ordelaffo； Prince of Forli； and afterwards for many years professor at Bologna。 Against the Church and the monks his language is as abusive as that of the rest。 His tone in general is reckless to the last degree； and he constantly introduces himself in all his local history and gossip。 But he knows how to speak to the edification of the true God…Man； Jesus Christ； and to commend himself by letter to the prayers of a saintly priest。 On one occasion； after enumerating the follies of the pagan religions； he thus goes on： 'Our theologians； too； quarrel about 〃the guinea…pig's tail；〃 about the Immaculate Conception； Antichrist； Sacraments； Predestination； and other things； which were better let alone than talked of publicly。' Once； when he was not at home； his room and manuscripts were burnt。 When he heard the news he stood opposite a figure of the Madonna in the street； and cried to it： 'Listen to what I tell you； I am not mad； I am saying what I mean。 If I ever call upon you in the hour of my death； you need not hear me or take me among your own； for I will go and spend eternity with the devil。' After which speech he found it desirable to spend six months in retirement at the home of a woodcutter。 With all this； he was so superstitious that prodigies and omens gave him incessant frights； leaving him no belief to spare for the immortality of the soul。 When his hearers questioned him on the matter； he answered that no one knew what became of a man； of his soul or his spirit； after death； and the talk about another life was only fit to frighten old women。 But when he came to die； he commended in his will his soul or his spirit to Almighty God； exhorted his weeping pupils to fear the Lord； and especially to believe in immortality and future retribution； and received the Sacrament with much fervor。 We have no guarantee that more famous men in the same calling； however significant their opinions may be； were in practical life any more consistent。 It is probable that most of them wavered inwardly between incredulity and a remnant of the faith in which they were brought up； and outwardly held for prudential reasons to the Church。
Through the connexion of rationalism with the newly born science of historical investigation； some timid attempts at biblical criticism may here and there have been made。 A saying of Pius II has been recorded； which seems intended to prepare the way for such criticism： 'Even if Christianity were not confirmed by miracles； it ought still to be accepted on account of its morality。' The legends of the Church； in so far as they contained arbitrary versions of the biblical miracles； were freely ridiculed； and this reacted on the religious sense of the people。 Where Judaizing heretics are mentioned； we must understand chiefly those who denied the Divinity of Christ； which was probably the offence for which Giorgio da Novara was burnt at Bologna about the year 1500。 But again at Bologna in the year 1497 the Dominican Inquisitor was forced to let the physician Gabriele da Salo； who had powerful patrons； escape with a simple expression of penitenc