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er of the two men。
After the fall of the Moor； his sons were badly brought up among strangers。 The elder； Massimiliano； had no resemblance to him； the younger； Francesco； was at all events not without spirit。 Milan； which in those years changed its rulers so often； and suffered so unspeakably in t he change； endeavored to secure itself against a reaction。 In the year 1512 the French； retreating before the arms of Maximilian and the Spaniards； were induced to make a declaration that the Milanese had taken no part in their expulsion； and； without being guilty of rebellion； might yield themselves to a new conqueror。 It is a f act of some political importance that in such moments of transition the unhappy city； like Naples at the flight of the Aragonese； was apt to fall a prey to gangs of （often highly aristocratic） scoundrels。
The house of Gonzaga at Mantua and that of Montefeltro of Urbino were among the best ordered and richest in men of ability during the second half of the fifteenth century。 The Gonzaga were a tolerably harmonious family； for a long period no murder had been known among them； and their dead could be shown to the world without fear。7 The Marquis Francesco Gonzaga and his wife； Isabella of Este； in spite of some few irregularities； were a united and respectable couple； and brought up their sons to be successful and remarkable men at a time when their small but most important State was exposed to incessant danger。 That Francesco； either as statesman or as soldier； should adopt a policy of exceptional honesty； was what neither the Emperor； nor Venice； nor the King of France could have expected or desired； but certainly since the battle of the Taro （1495）； so far as military honour was concerned； he felt and acted as an Italian patriot； and imparted the same spirit to his wife。 Every deed of loyalty and heroism； such as the defence of Faenza against Cesare Borgia； she felt as a vindication of the honour of Italy。 Our judgement of her does not need to rest on the praises of the artists and writers who made the fair princess a rich return for her patronage； her own letters show her to us as a woman of unshaken firmness； full of kindliness and humorous observation。 Bembo； Bandello； Ariosto； and Bernardo Tasso sent their works to this court； small and powerless as it was； and empty as they found its treasury。 A more polished and charming circle was not to be seen in Italy； since the dissolution （1508） of the old Court of Urbino； and in one respect； in freedom of movement； the society of Ferrara was inferior to that of Mantua。 In artistic matters Isabella had an accurate knowledge； and the catalogue of her small but choice collection can be read by no lover of art without emotion。
In the great Federigo （1444…1482）； whether he were a genuine Montefeltro or not； Urbino possessed a brilliant representative of the princely order。 As a Condottiere he shared the political morality of soldiers of fortune； a morality of which the fault does not rest with them alone； as ruler of his little territory he adopted the plan of spending at home the money he had earned abroad； and taxing his people as lightly as possible。 Of him and his two successors； Guidobaldo and Francesco Maria； we read： 'They erected buildings； furthered the cultivation of the land； lived at home； and gave employment to a large number of people： their subjects loved them。' But not only the State； but the court too； was a work of art and organization； and this in every sense of the word。 Federigo had 500 persons in his service； the arrangements of the court were as complete as in the capitals of the greatest monarchs； but nothing was built quarters sprang up at the bidding of the ruler： here； by the concentration of the official classes and the active promotion of trade； was formed for the first time a true capital； wealthy fugitives from all parts of Italy； Florentines especially； settled and built their palaces at Ferrara。 But the indirect taxation； at all events； must have reached a point at which it could only just be borne。 The Government； it is true； took measures of alleviation which were also adopted by other Italian despots； such as Galeazzo Maria Sforza： in time of famine； corn was brought from a distance and seems to have been distributed gratuitously； but in ordinary times it compensated itself by the monopoly； if not of corn； of many other of the necessaries of life fish； salt； meat； fruit and vegetables； which last were carefully planted on and ne ar the walls of the city。 The most considerable source of income； however； was the annual sale of public offices； a usage which was common throughout Italy； and about the working of which at Ferrara we have more precise information。 We read； for example； that at the new year 1502 the majority of the officials bought their places at 'prezzi salati' （pungent prices）； public servants of the most various kinds； custom…house officers； bailiffs （massari）； notaries； 'podesta；' judges； and even governors of provincial towns are quoted by name。 As one of the 'devourers of the people' who paid dearly for their places； and who were 'hated worse than the devil；' Tito Strozza let us hope not the famous Latin poet is mentioned。 About the same time every year the dukes were accustomed to make a round of visits in Ferrara； the so…called 'andar per ventura；' in which they took presents from； at any rate； the more wealthy citizens。 The gifts； however； did not consist of money； but of natural products。
It was the pride of the duke for all Italy to know that at Ferrara the soldiers received their pay and the professors at the University their salary not a day later than it was due； that the soldiers never dared lay arbitrary hands on citizen or peasant； that the town was impregnable to assault； and that vast sums of coined money were stored up in the citadel。 To keep two sets of accounts seemed unnecessary： the Minister of Finance was at the same time manager of the ducal household。 The buildings erected by Borso （1430…1471）； by Ercole I （till 1505）； and by Alfonso I （till 1534）； were very numerous； but of small size； they are characteristic of a princely house which； with all its love of splendor Borso never appeared but in embroidery and jewels indulged in no ill…considered expense。 Alfonso may perhaps have foreseen the fate which was in store for his charming little villas； the Belvedere with its shady gardens； and Montana with its fountains and beautiful frescoes。
It is undeniable that the dangers to which these princes were constantly exposed developed in them capacities of a remarkable kind。 In so artificial a world only a man of consummate address could hope to succeed； each candidate for distinction was forced to make good his claims by personal merit and show himself worthy of the crown he sought。 Their characters are not without dark sides； but in all of them lives something of those qualities which Italy then pursued as its ideal。 What European monarch of the time labored for his own culture as； for instance； Alfonso I？ His travels in France； England； and the Netherlands we re undertaken for the purp