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and the moral laws which are involved in it。 Few theologians nowadays would feel tempted to give a morning sermon 'on contracts； restitutions； the public debt （monte）； and the portioning of daughters；' like that which he once delivered in the Cathedral at Florence。 Imprudent speakers easily fell into the mistake of attacking particular classes； professions； or offices； with such energy that the enraged hearers proceeded to violence against those whom the preacher had denounced。 A sermon which Bernardino once preached in Rome （1424） had another consequence besides a bonfire of vanities on the Capitol： 'After this；' we read； 'the witch Finicella was burnt； because by her diabolical arts she had killed many children and bewitched many other persons； and all Rome went to see the sight。'
But the most important aim of the preacher was； as has been already said； to reconcile enemies and persuade them to give up thoughts of vengeance。 Probably this end was seldom attained till towards the close of a course of sermons； when the tide of penitence flooded the city； and when the air resounded with the cry of the whole people： 'Misericordia！ ' Then followed those solemn embracings and treaties of peace； which even previous bloodshed on both sides could not hinder。 Banished men were recalled to the city to take part in these sacred transactions。 It appears that these 'Paci' were on the whole faithfully observed； even after the mood which prompted them was over； and then the memory of the monk was blessed from generation to generation。 But there were sometimes terrible crises like those in the families Della Valle and Croce in Rome （1482） where even the great Roberto da Lecce raised his voice in vain。 Shortly before Holy Week he had preached to immense crowds in the square before the Minerva。 But on the night before Maundy Thursday a terrible combat took place in front of the Palazzo della Valle； near the Ghetto。 In the morning Pope Sixtus gave orders for its destruction； and then performed the customary ceremonies of the day。 On Good Friday Roberto preached again with a crucifix in his hand； but he and his hearers could do nothing but weep。
Violent natures； which had fallen into contradictions with themselves； often resolved to enter a convent； under the impression made by these men。 Among such were not only brigands and criminals of every sort； but soldiers without employment。 This resolve was stimulated by their admiration of the holy man； and by the desire to copy at least his outward position。
The concluding sermon is a general benediction； summed up in the words： 'la pace sia con voi！' Throngs of hearers accompany the preacher to the next city； and there listen for a second time to the whole course of sermons。
The enormous influence exercised by these preachers made it important； both for the clergy and for the government； at least not to have them as opponents； one means to this end was to permit only monks or priests who had received at all events the lesser consecration； to enter the pulpit； so that the Order or Corporation to which they belonged was； to some extent； responsible for them。 But it was not easy to make the rule absolute； since the Church and pulpit had long been used as a means of publicity in many ways； judicial； educational； and others； and since even sermons were sometimes delivered by humanists and other laymen。 There existed； too； in Italy； a dubious class of persons who were neither monks nor priests； and who yet had renounced the worldthat is to say； the numerous class of hermits who appeared from time to time in the pulpit on their own authority； and often carried the people with them。 A case of this kind occurred at Milan in 1516 after the second French conquest； certainly at a time when public order was much disturbed。 A Tuscan hermit； Hieronymus of Siena； possibly an adherent of Savonarola； maintained his place for months together in the pulpit of the Cathedral； denounced the hierarchy with great violence； caused a new chandelier and a new altar to be set up in the church； worked miracles； and only abandoned the field after a long and desperate struggle。 During the decades in which the fate of Italy was decided； the spirit of prophecy was unusually active； and nowhere where it displayed itself was it confined to any one particular class。 We know with what a tone of true prophetic defiance the hermits came forward before the sack of Rome。 In default of any eloquence of their own； these men made use of messengers with symbols of one kind or another； like the ascetic near Siena （1496） who sent a 'little hermit；' that is a pupil； into the terrified city with a skull upon a pole to which was attached a paper with a threatening text from the Bible。
Nor did the monks themselves scruple to attack princes； governments； the clergy； or even their own order。 A direct exhortation to overthrow a despotic house； like that uttered by Jacopo Bussolaro at Pavia in the fourteenth century； hardly occurs again in the following period： but there is no want of courageous reproofs； addressed even to the Pope in his own chapel； and of naive political advice given in the presence of rulers who by no means held themselves in need of it。 In the Piazza del Castello at Milan； a blind preacher from the Incoronataconsequently an Augustinianventured in 1494 to exhort Lodovico il Moro from the pulpit： 'My lord； beware of showing the French the way； else you will repent it。' There were further prophetic monks who； without exactly preaching political sermons； drew such appalling pictures of the future that the hearers almost lost their senses。 After the election of Leo X； in the year 1513 a whole association of these men； twelve Franciscan monks in all； journeyed through the various districts of Italy； of which one or other was assigned to each preacher。 The one who appeared in Florence； fra Francesco da Montepulcian； struck terror into the whole people。 The alarm was not diminished by the exaggerated reports of his prophecies which reached those who were too far off to hear him。 After one of his sermons he suddenly died 'of pain in the chest。' The people thronged in such numbers to kiss the feet of the corpse that it had to be secretly buried in the night。 But the newly awakened spirit of prophecy； which seized upon even women and peasants； could not be controlled without great difficulty。 'In order to restore to the people their cheerful humour； the MediciGiuliano； Leo's brother； and Lorenzogave on St。 John's Day； 1514； those splendid festivals； tournaments； processions； and hunting…parties； which were attended by many distinguished persons from Rome； and among them； though disguised； no less than six cardinals。'
But the greatest of the prophets and apostles had already been burnt in Florence in the year 1498Fra Girolamo Savonarola of Ferrara。 We must content ourselves with saying a few words respecting him。
The instrument by means of which he transformed and ruled the city of Florence （1494…8） was his eloquence。 Of this the meagre reports that are left to us； which were taken down mostly on the spot； give us evidently a very i