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head a band of robbers。 That age offers us this example among others。 On August 12； 1495； the priest Don Niccolo de' Pelagati of Figarolo was shut up in an iron cage outside the tower of San Giuliano at Ferrara。 He had twice celebrated his first mass； the first time he had the same day committed murder； but afterwards received absolution at Rome； he then killed four people and married two wives； with whom he travelled about。 He afterwards took part in many assassinations； violated women； carried others away by force； plundered far and wide； and infested the territory of Ferrara with a band of followers in uniform； extorting food and shelter by every sort of violence。 When we think of what all this implies； the mass of guilt on the head of this one man is something tremendous。 The clergy and monks had many privileges and little supervision； and among them were doubtless plenty of murderers and other malefactorsbut hardly a second Pelagati。 It is another matter； though by no means creditable； when ruined characters sheltered themselves in the cowl in order to escape the arm of the law； like the corsair whom Masuccio knew in a convent at Naples。 What the real truth was with regard to Pope John XXIII in this respect； is not known with certainty。
The age of the famous brigand chief did not begin till later； in the seventeenth century； when the political strife of Guelph and Ghibelline； of Frenchman and Spaniard； no longer agitated the country。 The robber then took the place of the partisan。
In certain districts of Italy； where civilization had made little progress； the country people were disposed to murder any stranger who fell into their hands。 This was especially the case in the more remote parts of the Kingdom of Naples； where the barbarism dated probably from the days of the Roman 'latifundia；' and when the stranger and the enemy （'hospes' and 'hostis'） were in all good faith held to be one and the same。 These people were far from being irreligious。 A herdsman once appeared in great trouble at the confessional； avowing that； while making cheese during Lent； a few drops of milk had found their way into his mouth。 The confessor； skilled in the customs of the country； discovered in the course of his examination that the penitent and his friends were in the practice of robbing and murdering travellers； but that； through the force of habit； this usage gave rise to no twinges of conscience within them。 We have already mentioned to what a degree of barbarism the peasants elsewhere could sink in times of political confusion。
A worse symptom than brigandage of the morality of that time was the frequency of paid assassination。 In that respect Naples was admitted to stand at the head of all the cities of Italy。 'Nothing；' says Pontano； 'is cheaper here than human life。' But other districts could also show a terrible list of these crimes。 It is hard； of course； to classify them according to the motives by which they were prompted； since political expediency； personal hatred； party hostility； fear； and revenge； all play into one another。 It is no small honour to the Florentines； the most highly developed people of Italy； that offenses of this kind occurred more rarely among them than anywhere else； perhaps because there was a justice at hand for legitimate grievances which was recognized by all； or because the higher culture of the individual gave him different views as to the right of men to interfere with the decrees of fate。 In Florence； if anywhere； men were able to feel the incalculable consequences of a deed of blood； and to understand how uncertain the author of a so…called profitable crime is of any true and lasting gain。 After the fall of Florentine liberty； assassination； especially by hired agents； seems to have rapidly increased； and continued till the government of Grand Duke Cosimo I de' Medici had attained such strength that the police were at last able to repress it。
Elsewhere in Italy paid crimes were probably more or less frequent in proportion to the number of powerful and solvent buyers。 Impossible as it is to make any statistical estimate of their amount； yet if only a fraction of the deaths which public report attributed to violence were really murders； the crime must have been terribly frequent。 The worst example of all was set by princes and governments； who without the faintest scruple reckoned murder as one of the instruments of their power。 And this； without being in the same category with Cesare Borgia。 The Sforzas； the Aragonese monarchs； and； later on； the agents of Charles V resorted to it whenever it suited their purpose。 The imagination of the people at last became so accustomed to facts of this kind that the death of any powerful man was seldom or never attributed to natural causes。 There were certainly absurd notions current with regard to the effect of various poisons。 There may be some truth in the story of that terrible white powder used by the Borgias； which did its work at the end of a definite period； and it is possible that it was really a 'venenum atterminatum' which the Prince of Salerno handed to the Cardinal of Aragon； with the words： 'In a few days you will die； because your father； King Ferrante； wished to trample upon us all。' But the poisoned letter which Caterina Riario sent to Pope Alexander VI would hardly have caused his death even if he had read it； and when Alfonso the Great was warned by his physicians not to read in the Livy which Cosimo de' Medici had presented to him； he told them with justice not to talk like fools。 Nor can that poison with which the secretary of Piccinino wished to anoint the sedan…chair of Pius II have affected any other organ than the imagination。 The proportion which mineral and vegetable poisons bore to one another； cannot be ascertained precisely。 The poison with which the painter Rosso Fiorentino destroyed himself （1541） was evidently a powerful acid； which it would have been impossible to administer to another person without his knowledge。 The secret use of weapons； especially of the dagger； in the service of powerful individuals； was habitual in Milan； Naples； and other cities。 Indeed； among the crowds of armed retainers who were necessary for the personal safety of the great； and who lived in idleness； it was natural that outbreaks of this mania for blood should from time to time occur。 Many a deed of horror would never have been committed； had not the master known that he needed but to give a sign to one or other of his followers。
Among the means used for the secret destruction of others so far； that is； as the intention goeswe find magic； practiced； however； sparingly。 Where 'maleficii；' 'malie；' and so forth； are mentioned； they appear rather as a means of heaping up additional terror on the head of some hated enemy。 At the courts of France and England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries； magic； practiced with a view to the death of an opponent； plays a far more important part than in Italy。 In this country； finally； where individuality of every sort attained its highest development； we find instances of that ideal and absolute wick