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incidents presupposed in the drama； the seizure of the child； and then
again 。。。 ＇the Unraveling＇ extends from the accusation of murder to
the end。
There are four kinds of Tragedy： the Complex； depending entirely
on Reversal of the Situation and Recognition； the Pathetic （where
the motive is passion）… such as the tragedies on Ajax and Ixion； the
Ethical （where the motives are ethical）… such as the Phthiotides and
the Peleus。 The fourth kind is the Simple。 ＇We here exclude the purely
spectacular element＇； exemplified by the Phorcides； the Prometheus；
and scenes laid in Hades。 The poet should endeavor； if possible； to
combine all poetic elements； or failing that； the greatest number
and those the most important； the more so； in face of the caviling
criticism of the day。 For whereas there have hitherto been good poets；
each in his own branch； the critics now expect one man to surpass
all others in their several lines of excellence。
In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different； the best test
to take is the plot。 Identity exists where the Complication and
Unraveling are the same。 Many poets tie the knot well； but unravel
it Both arts； however； should always be mastered。
Again； the poet should remember what has been often said； and not
make an Epic structure into a tragedy… by an Epic structure I mean one
with a multiplicity of plots… as if； for instance； you were to make
a tragedy out of the entire story of the Iliad。 In the Epic poem；
owing to its length； each part assumes its proper magnitude。 In the
drama the result is far from answering to the poet's expectation。
The proof is that the poets who have dramatized the whole story of the
Fall of Troy； instead of selecting portions； like Euripides； or who
have taken the whole tale of Niobe； and not a part of her story；
like Aeschylus； either fail utterly or meet with poor success on the
stage。 Even Agathon has been known to fail from this one defect。 In
his Reversals of the Situation； however； he shows a marvelous skill in
the effort to hit the popular taste… to produce a tragic effect that
satisfies the moral sense。 This effect is produced when the clever
rogue； like Sisyphus； is outwitted； or the brave villain defeated。
Such an event is probable in Agathon's sense of the word： 'is
probable；' he says； 'that many things should happen contrary to
probability。'
The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors； it should be
an integral part of the whole； and share in the action； in the
manner not of Euripides but of Sophocles。 As for the later poets；
their choral songs pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to
that of any other tragedy。 They are； therefore； sung as mere
interludes… a practice first begun by Agathon。 Yet what difference
is there between introducing such choral interludes； and
transferring a speech； or even a whole act； from one play to another。
POETICS｜19
XIX
It remains to speak of Diction and Thought； the other parts of
Tragedy having been already discussed。 concerning Thought； we may
assume what is said in the Rhetoric； to which inquiry the subject more
strictly belongs。 Under Thought is included every effect which has
to be produced by speech； the subdivisions being： proof and
refutation； the excitation of the feelings； such as pity； fear； anger；
and the like； the suggestion of importance or its opposite。 Now； it is
evident that the dramatic incidents must be treated from the same
points of view as the dramatic speeches； when the object is to evoke
the sense of pity； fear； importance； or probability。 The only
difference is that the incidents should speak for themselves without
verbal exposition； while effects aimed at in should be produced by the
speaker； and as a result of the speech。 For what were the business
of a speaker； if the Thought were revealed quite apart from what he
says？
Next； as regards Diction。 One branch of the inquiry treats of the
Modes of Utterance。 But this province of knowledge belongs to the
art of Delivery and to the masters of that science。 It includes； for
instance… what is a command； a prayer； a statement； a threat； a
question； an answer； and so forth。 To know or not to know these things
involves no serious censure upon the poet's art。 For who can admit the
fault imputed to Homer by Protagoras… that in the words； 'Sing；
goddess； of the wrath； he gives a command under the idea that he
utters a prayer？ For to tell some one to do a thing or not to do it
is； he says； a command。 We may； therefore； pass this over as an
inquiry that belongs to another art； not to poetry。
POETICS｜20
XX
Language in general includes the following parts： Letter；
Syllable； Connecting Word； Noun； Verb； Inflection or Case； Sentence or
Phrase。
A Letter is an indivisible sound； yet not every such sound； but only
one which can form part of a group of sounds。 For even brutes utter
indivisible sounds； none of which I call a letter。 The sound I mean
may be either a vowel； a semivowel； or a mute。 A vowel is that which
without impact of tongue or lip has an audible sound。 A semivowel that
which with such impact has an audible sound； as S and R。 A mute；
that which with such impact has by itself no sound； but joined to a
vowel sound becomes audible； as G and D。 These are distinguished
according to the form assumed by the mouth and the place where they
are produced； according as they are aspirated or smooth； long or
short； as they are acute； grave； or of an intermediate tone； which
inquiry belongs in detail to the writers on meter。
A Syllable is a nonsignificant sound； composed of a mute and a
vowel： for GR without A is a syllable； as also with A… GRA。 But the
investigation of these differences belongs also to metrical science。
A Connecting Word is a nonsignificant sound； which neither causes
nor hinders the union of many sounds into one significant sound； it
may be placed at either end or in the middle of a sentence。 Or； a
nonsignificant sound； which out of several sounds； each of them
significant； is capable of forming one significant sound… as amphi；
peri； and the like。 Or； a nonsignificant sound； which marks the
beginning； end； or division of a sentence； such； however； that it
cannot correctly stand by itself at the beginning of a sentence… as
men； etoi； de。
A Noun is a composite significant sound； not marking time； of
which no part is in itself significant： for in double or compound
words we do not employ the separate parts as if each were in itself
significant。 Thus in Theodorus； 'god…given；' the doron or 'gift' is
not in itself significant。
A Verb is a composite significant sound； marking time； in which；
as in the noun； no part is in itself significant。 For 'man' or 'white'
does not