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the poetic art； the error is not justified： for every kind of error
should； if possible； be avoided。
Again； does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art； or
some accident of it？ For example； not to know that a hind has no horns
is a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically。
Further； if it be objected that the description is not true to fact；
the poet may perhaps reply； 'But the objects are as they ought to be'；
just as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be；
Euripides； as they are。 In this way the objection may be met。 If；
however； the representation be of neither kind； the poet may answer；
'This is how men say the thing is。' applies to tales about the gods。
It may well be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet
true to fact： they are； very possibly； what Xenophanes says of them。
But anyhow； 'this is what is said。' Again； a description may be no
better than the fact： 'Still； it was the fact'； as in the passage
about the arms： 'Upright upon their butt…ends stood the spears。'
This was the custom then； as it now is among the Illyrians。
Again； in examining whether what has been said or done by some
one is poetically right or not； we must not look merely to the
particular act or saying； and ask whether it is poetically good or
bad。 We must also consider by whom it is said or done； to whom；
when； by what means； or for what end； whether； for instance； it be
to secure a greater good； or avert a greater evil。
Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of
language。 We may note a rare word； as in oureas men proton； 'the mules
first ＇he killed＇；' where the poet perhaps employs oureas not in the
sense of mules； but of sentinels。 So； again； of Dolon： 'ill…favored
indeed he was to look upon。' It is not meant that his body was
ill…shaped but that his face was ugly； for the Cretans use the word
eueides； 'well…flavored' to denote a fair face。 Again； zoroteron de
keraie； 'mix the drink livelier' does not mean 'mix it stronger' as
for hard drinkers； but 'mix it quicker。'
Sometimes an expression is metaphorical； as 'Now all gods and men
were sleeping through the night；' while at the same time the poet
says： 'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain； he
marveled at the sound of flutes and pipes。' 'All' is here used
metaphorically for 'many；' all being a species of many。 So in the
verse； 'alone she hath no part。。。 ； oie； 'alone' is metaphorical；
for the best known may be called the only one。
Again； the solution may depend upon accent or breathing。 Thus
Hippias of Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines； didomen
（didomen） de hoi； and to men hou （ou） kataputhetai ombro。
Or again； the question may be solved by punctuation； as in
Empedocles： 'Of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt
to be immortal； and things unmixed before mixed。'
Or again； by ambiguity of meaning； as parocheken de pleo nux；
where the word pleo is ambiguous。
Or by the usage of language。 Thus any mixed drink is called oinos；
'wine'。 Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to Zeus；' though
the gods do not drink wine。 So too workers in iron are called
chalkeas； or 'workers in bronze。' This； however； may also be taken
as a metaphor。
Again； when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning；
we should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular
passage。 For example： 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'… we
should ask in how many ways we may take 'being checked there。' The
true mode of interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon
mentions。 Critics； he says； jump at certain groundless conclusions；
they pass adverse judgement and then proceed to reason on it； and；
assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen to think； find
fault if a thing is inconsistent with their own fancy。
The question about Icarius has been treated in this fashion。 The
critics imagine he was a Lacedaemonian。 They think it strange；
therefore； that Telemachus should not have met him when he went to
Lacedaemon。 But the Cephallenian story may perhaps be the true one。
They allege that Odysseus took a wife from among themselves； and
that her father was Icadius； not Icarius。 It is merely a mistake；
then； that gives plausibility to the objection。
In general； the impossible must be justified by reference to
artistic requirements； or to the higher reality； or to received
opinion。 With respect to the requirements of art； a probable
impossibility is to be preferred to a thing improbable and yet
possible。 Again； it may be impossible that there should be men such as
Zeuxis painted。 'Yes；' we say； 'but the impossible is the higher
thing； for the ideal type must surpass the realty。' To justify the
irrational； we appeal to what is commonly said to be。 In addition to
which； we urge that the irrational sometimes does not violate
reason； just as 'it is probable that a thing may happen contrary to
probability。'
Things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules
as in dialectical refutation… whether the same thing is meant； in
the same relation； and in the same sense。 We should therefore solve
the question by reference to what the poet says himself； or to what is
tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence。
The element of the irrational； and； similarly； depravity of
character； are justly censured when there is no inner necessity for
introducing them。 Such is the irrational element in the introduction
of Aegeus by Euripides and the badness of Menelaus in the Orestes。
Thus； there are five sources from which critical objections are
drawn。 Things are censured either as impossible； or irrational； or
morally hurtful； or contradictory； or contrary to artistic
correctness。 The answers should be sought under the twelve heads above
mentioned。
POETICS｜26
XXVI
The question may be raised whether the Epic or Tragic mode of
imitation is the higher。 If the more refined art is the higher； and
the more refined in every case is that which appeals to the better
sort of audience； the art which imitates anything and everything is
manifestly most unrefined。 The audience is supposed to be too dull
to comprehend unless something of their own is thrown by the
performers； who therefore indulge in restless movements。 Bad
flute…players twist and twirl； if they have to represent 'the
quoit…throw；' or hustle the coryphaeus when they perform the Scylla。
Tragedy； it is said； has this same defect。 We may compare the
opinion that the older actors entertained of their successors。
Mynniscus used to call Callippides 'ape' on account of the
extravagance of his action； and the same view was held of Pindarus。
Tragic art； then； as a whole； stands to Epic in the sa