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custom to remove wherever he liked； of course giving up to the
squire his house and his share in the open fields of the manor。
At first this right of removal could be exercised at any period
of the year； but this being found prejudicial to the agricultural
interests of the country certain fixed periods were soon
established； at which alone such a removal was allowed。 Usually
the end of harvest was fixed as the time when new arrangements
could be entered into with regard to future agricultural labour
without causing any loss to the interests of the landlord。 Not
only in autumn； however； but also in spring； soon after Easter；
manorial lords were in the habit of permitting the establishment
of new settlers on their estates； and the withdrawal of those
peasants who expressed a desire to leave。
The first Soudebnik； the legal code published by Ivan III in
1497； speaks of the festival of Saint George； which according to
the Russian calendar falls on the 26th of November； as a period
at which all removals ought to take place。 Those peasants who had
not been fortunate enough to free themselves from all obligations
to the manor by this period were obliged to remain another year
on its lands。 He who； was unable to repay the lord the sum
borrowed was reduced to the same condition as that of the
insolvent farmers of the Roman ager publicus； who； according to
Fustel de Coulanges； saw their arrears of debt changed into a
perpetual rent called the canon； and their liberty of migration
superseded by a state of continual bondage to the land they
cultivated。 No Russian historian has shown the analogy existing
between the origin of the Roman colonatus and that of Russian
serfdom so clearly as Mr Kluchevsky； the eminent professor of
Russian history in the University of Moscow。 It is to him that we
are indebted for the discovery of the fact that centuries before
the legal and general abolition of the right of free migration a
considerable number of peasants had thus ceased to enjoy that
liberty。 Such was the case of those so…called 〃silver…men from
the oldest times；〃 viz。； starinnii serebrenniki； who during the
sixteenth century were already deprived of the right of free
removal from no other cause but the want of money； so that the
only condition on which they could withdraw from the manor on
which they were was that of finding some other landlord willing
to pay the money they owed； and thereby acquiring the right to
remove them to his own manor。
So long as the Russian power was geographically limited to
the possession of the central provinces in the immediate
neighbourhood of Moscow； and so long as the shores of the Volga
and Dnieper suffered from almost periodical invasions of the
Tartars； the Russian peasant who might wish to leave a manor
could not easily have procured the land he required； but when the
conquests of Ivan III and Ivan the Terrible had reduced to naught
the power of the Tartars； and had extended the Russian
possessions both to the East and to the South； the peasants were
seized with a spirit of migration； and legislation was required
to put a stop to the economic insecurity created by their
continual withdrawal from the manors of Inner Russia to the
Southern and Eastern steppes。 It is； therefore； easy to
understand why laws to prevent the possibility of a return of
peasant migration were first passed； at least on a general scale；
at this period。 It is no doubt true that； even at the end of the
fifteenth century； to certain monasteries were granted； among
other privileges； that of being free from the liability of having
their peasants removed to the estates of other landlords。 A
charter of the year 1478 recognises such a privilege as belonging
to the monks of the monastery of Troitzko…Sergievsk； which is；
according to popular belief； one of the most sacred places in
Russia。 The financial interests of the State also contributed
greatly to the change。 The fact that the taxpayer was tied to the
soil rendered the collection of taxes both speedier and more
exact。 These two causes sufficiently explain why； by the end of
the sixteenth century； the removal of peasants from manor to
manor had become very rare。
The system of land endowments in favour of the higher clergy
and monasteries； and also of persons belonging to the knightly
class； had increased to such an extent that； according to modern
calculation； two…thirds of the cultivated area was already the
property either of ecclesiastics or of secular grandees。 It is
therefore easy to understand why； during the sixteenth century；
the migratory state of the Russian agricultural population came
to be considered as a real danger to the State by the higher
classes of Russian society。 The most powerful of the nobles and
gentry did their best to retain the peasants on their lands。 Some
went even farther； and； by alleviating the burdens of
villein…service； and securing a more efficient protection for
them from administrative oppression； induced the peasants who
inhabited the lands of smaller squires to leave their old homes
and settle on their manors。 It was in order to protect the small
landowners from this sort of oppression that Boris Goudonov； the
all…powerful ruler of Russia in the reign of Theodor Ivanovitch；
promulgated a law； according to which every one was authorised to
insist on the return of a peasant who left his abode； and that
during the five years next following his departure。 This law was
promulgated in 1597。 As no mention is made in it of the right
previously enjoyed by the peasants of removing from one manor to
another on St。 George's Day； this law of 1597 has been considered
by historians as the direct cause of the introduction of the
so…called 〃bondage to the soil〃 （krepostnoie pravo）。 Such was
certainly not its object。 The right of migration on the Day of
St。 George was openly acknowledged by the laws of 1601 and 1602。
The bondage of the peasant to the soil became an established fact
only in the year 1648； when the new code of law； the so…called
Oulogienie （chap。 xi）； refused to any one the right to receive on
his lands the peasant who should run away from a manor； and
abolished that limit of time beyond which the landlord lost the
right to reclaim the peasant who had removed from his ancient
dwelling。
The number of serfs rapidly increased during the second half
of the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries； owing to the
prodigality with which the Czars and Emperors endowed the members
of the official class with lands； in disregard often of their
previous occupation by free village communities； the members of
which were forced to become the serfs of the persons who received
the grant。 It is in this way that Catherine II； for instance；
during the thirty…four years of her reign； increased the number
of serfs by 800；000 new ones； and that Paul I； in a period of
four years； added 600；000 to the number； which was already
enormous。
Before the reign of Catherine； serfdom was almost unknown in
Little Russia； where it had been abolished by Bogdan Chmelnitzky；
soon after the separation of Little Russia from Poland； and in
the Ukraine （the modern Gove