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determined by their mutual relation in modern bourgeois society and this
is quite the reverse of what appears to be natural to them； or in
accordance with the sequence of historical development。 The point at
issue is not the role that various economic relations have played in the
succession of various social formations appearing in the course of
history； even less is it their sequence 〃as concepts〃 （Proudhon） （a
nebulous notion of the historical process）； but their position within
modern bourgeois society。
It is precisely the predominance of agricultural people in the ancient
world which caused the merchant nations Phoenicians； Carthaginians
to develop in such purity （abstract precision） in the ancient world。
For capital in the shape of merchant or money capital appears in the
abstract form where capital has not yet become the dominant factor in
society。 Lombards and Jews occupied the same position with regard to
mediaeval agrarian societies。
Another example of the various roles which the same categories have
played at different stages of society are joint…stock companies； one of
the most recent features of bourgeois society； but they arise also in
its early period in the form of large privileged commercial companies
with rights of monopoly。
The concept of national wealth finds its way into the works of the
economists of the 17th century as the notion that wealth is created for
the state； whose power； on the other hand； is proportional to this
wealth a notion which to some extent still survives even among 18th
century economists。 This is still an unintentionally hypocritical
manner in which wealth and the production of wealth are proclaimed to be
the goal of modern states； and production itself is regarded simply as a
means for producing wealth。
The disposition of material has evidently to be made in such a way that
＇section＇
One … comprises general abstract definitions； which； therefore；
appertain in some measure to all social formations； but in
the sense set forth earlier。
Two … the categories which constitute the internal structure of
bourgeois society and on which the principal classes are
based。 Town and country。 The three large social classes；
exchanges between them。 Circulation。 The （private） credit
system。
Three … the state as the epitome of bourgeois society。 Analysis of
its relations to itself。 The 〃unproductive〃 classes。 Taxes。
National debt； public credit； Population； Colonies；
Emigration。
Four … international conditions of production。 International
division of labor。 International exchange。 Export and
import。 Rate of exchange。
Five … world market and crises。
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