the ultimate standard of value-第3章

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　gentle　blame　and　conciliating　applause　to　both　parties　in　the　discussion。　Jevons　and　the　Austrian　economists　are　censured　for　exaggerating　the　importance　of　marginal　utility；　while　the　adherents　of　the　classical　theory　are　taken　to　task　for　underrating　its　importance；　the　truth；　they　say；　lies　in　the　middle。　Scarcity　goods；　without　doubt；　have　their　value　determined　entirely　by　utility。　In　the　case　of　freely　reproducible　goods　the　demand　is　governed　by　utility；　and　the　supply　by　cost；　since　the　price　is　determined　by　the　interaction　of　these　two　factors；　one　cannot　say　either　that　utility　alone　or　that　cost　alone　determines　value；　but　rather　that　utility　and　cost　cooperate　with　each　other　in　the　determination　of　price；　like；　to　use　Professor　Marshall's　figure；　the　two　blades　of　a　pair　of　shears。（9*）　　　　　Criminal　lawyers　of　long　experience　are　wont　to　apply　to　obscure　and　complicated　cases　the　motto：　Cherchez　la　femme！　　　　　　For　my　own　part；　when；　in　our　science；　I　find　many　clear　and　able　thinkers　at　odds　about　a　given　point；　I　usually　ask　myself；　where　is　the　ambitious　or　elusive　concept　with　which　they　are　playing。　In　this　case　we　need　not　search　far　afield；　it　is　the　concept　of　〃cost。〃



II。　THE　VARIOUS　MEANINGS　OF　THE　WORD　〃COST。〃

　　　　The　term　〃cost〃；　like　many　of　the　other　terms　employed　in　political　economy；　is　used；　both　in　scientific　discussions　and　in　practical　life；　in　several　different　senses。　Even　when　in　a　general　way　we　agree　in　saying　that　the　〃cost　of　production〃　of　a　good　is　the　sum　of　the　sacrifices　involved　in　the　creation　of　the　good；　this；　by　no　means；　guarantees　that　we　all　have　the　same　thing　in　mind。　In　the　estimation　of　these　sacrifice；　we　may　employ　several　different　methods　of　measurement。　Thee　give　us　results　which；　under　certain　circumstances；　will　differ　not　merely　with　reference　to　the　terms　employed；　but　also　with　reference　to　the　phenomena　indicated　by　these　terms。　　　　　　First　of　all；　we　may　distinguish　between　what　might　be　called　the　〃synchronous〃　and　the　〃historical〃　methods　of　estimating　sacrifices。　According　to　the　former；　we　take　a　unit　of　the　total　sacrifices　as　the　basis　for　our　reckoning；　a　unit　which　contains　an　increment　of　all　the　forms　of　sacrifice；　which；　at　any　instant；　must　enter　into　the　production　of　the　commodity。　In　the　production　of　cloth；　for　instance；　we　consume　at　the　same　time；　yarn；　looms　（wear　and　tear）；　the　labor　of　weavers；　coal；　etc。；　beside　a　great　many　subordinate　aids　to　production。　By　this　method　we　usually　arrive　at　a　very　extensive　list　of　production　sacrifices。　In　order　to　obtain　a　single　expression　for　this　aggregate；　or　for　the　height　of　the　cost；　we　must　bring　these　various　elements　in　production　under　a　common　denominator。　This　may　be　done　by　estimating　them　all　according　to　their　value　or　price。　Hence；　by　this　synchronous　method　of　reckoning；　the　cost　equals　the　aggregate　of　the　means　of　production；　that　have　been　sacrificed　in　the　creation　of　the　commodities；　estimated　according　to　their　value。　　　　　This　is　undoubtedly　the　sense　in　which　the　term　cost　is　understood　in　practical　business　life。　It　is　in　this　way；　that　the　manufacturer；　the　farmer　and　the　merchant　reckon　their　cost。　This；　too；　is　the　sense　in　which　Professor　Marshall　employs　the　term　when　he　speaks　of　the　〃money　cost　of　production；〃（10*）　and　in　my　own　writings　about　value　and　capital；　I　usually　employ　the　term　cost　in　the　same　way。　Usually　but　not　always；　because　for　certain　purposes　another　mode　of　estimating　sacrifices；　become　important　and　may　not　be　neglected。　This　is　the　historical　method。　It　is　quite　manifest　that　many　of　the　concrete　forms　of　goods；　which　we　today　are　compelled　to　sacrifice　to　purse　of　production；　are　themselves　the　product　of　past　and　more　original　sacrifices。　For　example；　the　wood　and　coal　that　we　consume　to…day　in　the　production　of　cloth；　and　likewise　the　machine　which　we　wear　out；　are　themselves　the　product　of　previous　sacrifices　of　labor。　If　we　go　behind　these　material　commodities　to　the　sacrifice　which　the　human　race　has　suffered　in　successive　periods　of　time；　in　bringing　them　into　existence；　or　if　you　like　the　sacrifices　necessary　to　reproduce　them；　the　list　of　the　historical　production　sacrifices　would　be　greatly　simplified。　It　would　include　two；　or　at　most　three；　elements。　First　of　all　come　labor；　which　without　doubt　is　the　most　important　of　these　elements。　Then　come　a　second　to　which　many　economists　have　given　the　name；　abstinence。　Perhaps　a　third　might　be　added；　namely；　valuable　original　natural　power；　though　many　might　decline　to　regard　this　last　as　a　sacrifice。　　　　　　For　our　present　purse；　the　extension　of　the　discussion　to　the　last　two　elements；　about　which　there　may　be　some　question；　is　not　at　all　necessary。　We　may　indeed　leave　them　entirely　out　of　the　discussion；　and　take　the　most　important　of　the　above　elements　　labor　　as　the　representative　of　the　elementary　production　sacrifices。　Of　course　we　do　not　mean　that　we　would　either　deny　or　overlook　the　co…operation　of　the　other　elements；　but；　in　the　question　which　here　interests　us；　these　elements　play　a　part　in　no　way　different　from　that　played　by　labor；　so　that　the　result　obtained　for　the　latter　may　in　a　general　way　be　regarded　as　true　of　the　other　elementary　production　sacrifices。　It　is　therefore　hardly　necessary　to　repeat　the　same　argument　for　the　other　elements。　　　　　　As　I　have　already　remarked；　the　historical　mode　of　viewing　cost　is　regarded　by　Professor　Macvane　as　the　only　correct　method；（11*）　whether　or　not　he　is　right　we　have　yet　to　inquire。　It　is　employed　by　Professor　Marshall　in　the　statement　of　his　conception；　of　〃the　real　cost　of　production。〃（12*）　In　numerous　instances　I　also　have　had　occasion　to　make　use　of　it；　as　when　I　endeavor　to　show　that　capital　does　not　possess　original　productive　power。　Again；　when　in　explaining　the　operation　of　the　law　of　cost；（13*）　say　in　the　iron　industry；　I　declare　in　a　brief　way；　that　the　necessary　means　of　production　are　mines；　direct；　and　indirect　labor。（14*）　　　　　According　to　this　historical　method　of　reckoning　cost；　labor　may　be　regarded　as　the　chief　representative　of　all　production　costs。　But　the　sacrifice　arising　from　the　expenditure　of　labor　may　itself　be　measured　by　different　standards　or　scale。　We　can　measure　it　either　according　to　the　amount　of　the　labor　（i。e。；　the　duration　of　the　labor）；　according　to　the　value　of　the　labor；　or；　finally　according　to　the　amount　of　the　pain　or　disutility；　which　is　associated　with　the　labor。　　　　　　Obviously；　through　the　use　of　these　different　standards　of　measurements；　one　will　arrive　at　very　different　formulas　for　expressing　the　amount　of　the　costs。　If；　for　instance；　one　were　asked：　What　is　the　cost　of　production　of　a　certain　piece　of　cloth？　he　would　answer　according　to　the　first　scale　or　standard；　twenty　days'　labor；　according　to　the　second　（if　a　day's　labor　cost　say　eighty　cents）；　labor　to　the　value　of　sixteen　dollars；　and　according　to　the　third；　a　certain　sum　of　pain　or　disutility；　which　the　laborer　must　endure。　　　　　　But　it　is　important　that　we　should　here　see　clearly；　that　this　involve　more　than　a　mere　difference　in　the　terms　employed。　For　according　as　we　employ　one　or　the　other　of　these　scales　or　standards；　our　estima